“The Politics of Rural Russia 1905–1914”
Abamalek-Lazarev, S. S., 156
Afanas’ev, A. G., 234
agrarian disorders: impact on zemstvo politics, 44-46; effect on gentry activists, 48–49
Agrarian League (Bund der Landwirte), 143–45, 170–72
agrarian system: of western provinces, 104–10, 118; zemstvo and government expansion of aid to, 191–93; political mentality of peasants as affected by three-field vs. multifield rotation systems, 244–49, 281, 289
Alekseenko, M. M., 87
Alexander I, tsar, 262
All-People’s Russian Union, 148
All-Russian Union of Landowners, 147–50, 170
All-Russian Union of Zemstvos, 50
anti-Semitism, 98, 99
Arkhangel peasantry’s political mentality, 244, 291–92
assemblies of nobility: political evolution of, 40–42; hostility to bureaucracy, 125; and Liberation Movement, 144
autocracy of tsar, 40–42
Avrekh, A. Ia., 97, 100, 142, 204
Baiteriakov, G. Kh., 231
Bakunin brothers, 196
Balashev, P. N., 99, 103, 118, 137
Baltic peasantry’s political mentality, 225–27, 243–46, 288
Bantysh, V. A., 85
Bekhteev, S. S., 158
Bennigsen, E. P., 87
Bezak, F. N., 99, 103
black partition. See land reform issue Bogdanov, S. M., 103
Bobrinskii, A. A., 97, 146, 154, 155, 167
Bobrinsky, V. A., 103, 118
Brafman, A. Ia., 72
Bulygin Ukaz, 44 Bund der Landwirte, 143–45, 170–72
bureaucracy’s political struggle with gentry, 7–8, 30–31, 125, 262–63, 268–69
capitalism in western provinces, 10410, 118
Central Agricultural Region, 281–85
Chermenskii, E. D., 142, 220
Chermodurov, A. A., 147, 148
Chernov, V. E., 109
Chetverikov, S. I., 72, 80
Chikhachev, D. N., 99, 103 chinovnik, 112
Circle of Nobles Loyal to Their Oath, 153
city curia. See urban curia
class conflict, and zemstvo politics, 203–204
“class” peasantry, 220–49
clergy: election to Dumas, 18–20, 84, 95; importance in Third Duma, 95; as surrogates for Russian noble interests, 114–15
commercial-industrial class, 6
communal peasantry curia. See peasant curia
Constituent Assembly of 1918, 290–91
Constitutional Democratic Party. See Kadets
constitutional government, need for, 71–72
Council on the Affairs of the Local Economy: Stolypin’s establishment of, 132, 163; and United Nobility, 159; Stolypin’s defeats in, 165; review power over legislation, 185; and zemstvo politics, 185–86; gentry domination of, 295
county assemblies, 11, 13
crop rotation systems, 247–49
curial system, 10–25, 199
desiatiny, 104
Diakin, V. S., 142
Dicheskul’, P. V., 131
district administration, 166–69
district assemblies, 11
Donetskii, A. A., 135
Dorrer, V. F., 42, 153–54, 158
Dumas: electoral system, 9–25, 38; provincial electors to, 9; domination by large landowners, 10–25, 18485; clergy’s role in, 18–19; zemstvos’ challenge to, 31; peasant victories in elections to, 46–49; Octobrists in, 69, 79–86; analysis of elections to Third, 94–122; Stolypin’s support in, 128; United Nobility’s role in dissolution of First, 159–60; Third dominated by United Nobility, 184–85; peasant voting in 1912 elections to Fourth, 219–60, 279–91; electoral law’s discrimination against peasantry, 221–25; peasant disillusionment with, 226–27; relaxed attitude of gentry in Fourth, 269–71
Durnovo, P. N., 137
dvorianstvo, 100, 108–109, 117
education of peasantry: reforms in, 167–69; zemstvo role in, 191–93; issue of secular vs. parish schools, 193
Ekesparre, O. R., 165
elections: to Dumas, electoral process described, 9–25; to Fourth Duma, peasant voting patterns, 219–60. See also suffrage
electors: role in electoral system of Dumas, 9–11; characteristics of, 2022; to Third Duma, 20–21, 83–84, 95–96, 113–17; terminology used to describe, 95–96; of western, Nationalist and Octobrist gubernias compared, 114–18; to Fourth Duma, 221–22
Enakiev, F. E., 72
Ermansky, O. A. [Kogan, O. A.], 6
Ershov, M. D., 51
“estate” peasantry, 220–49
Estonian peasants’ political mentality, 229–30, 243–46, 288
ethnic affinities, and politics, 234
expropriation of land, 47. See also land reform issue
February 18
Rescript, 145
Firsov, G. A., 157
First Duma: electoral system for, 1015; dissolution of, 31; peasant victories, 46–47; Octobrists in, 79–81; United Nobility’s role in dissolution of, 159–60
four-tail suffrage, 31, 37–38, 51–52, 267
Fourth Duma: and Kadet party, 3–4; elections to, 16–19; nobility’s dominance in, 184–85; peasant voting in 1912 elections to, 219–60; relaxed attitude of gentry, 269–71; peasant political behavior in, 280–91
fraktsiia, 69
Gennert, A. I., 72
gentry. See landed nobility
Gizhitsky, A. S., 99
Glebov, Iu. N., 85
Golitsyn, A. D., 85, 86
Golos Moskvy, 81, 83, 97, 189
Golovin, K. F., 146, 154
Goremykin, I. L., 159
gospoda, 283
Govorukho-Otrok, M. Ia., 166
“grey” peasants, 15, 283
Grimm, K. N., 87, 88
gubernia elections, 95
Guchkov, A. I., 70–72, 75–77, 83–90, 152, 189, 279
Gudovich, V. V., 72, 74, 147, 150–53, 157
Gurko, V. I., 161–62, 167
Henderson, Neville, 101
Heyden, P. A., 72, 76–78, 81
Hosking, Geoffrey, 132
Ichas, M. M., 241, 245
intelligentsia: provincial, 4; gentry, 36, 364; peasant, 229–30
Iskritskii, M. A., 85
Jews: and elections to Third Duma, 99; in western provinces, 105, 116
June 3 System. See System of the Third of June
June 24 Deputation, 42
Kadets: ignorance of politics of rural Russia, 2–4; and zemstvo liberalism, 33–46; educational background of, 33–34; and constitutionalists, 33; occupational background of, 35; as heirs to 1905 zemstvo congresses, 43; effect of peasant disorders on, 46–48; expelled from zemstvo movement, 49–50; approach to landed gentry, 53–54; central committee, 89; classification as “zemstvo left,” 188–90; provincial branches, 189; rout in 1907 elections, 195–98; peasants as, 229, 233, 241, 243; lack of support from gentry, 274
Kalachov, D. V., 167
Karpov, V. I., 167
Kasatkin-Rostovskii, N. F., 154, 165
Kasso, 168
Khomiakov, N. A., 79, 85
Khomiakov, N. S., 72, 75, 101
khutor, 240–41, 245
Kiev, Nationalists in, 109–12
Kievlianin, 133
Kokovtsev, V. V., 160, 168
Kolo, 124, 135
Korf, P. L., 72, 75, 76
Kovno province peasants’ political mentality, 226, 243–46
Krasovskii, M. V., 72
Krupenskii, P. V., 51, 118
Krupensky, P. N., 103
Krupensky family, 103
Krym, Solomon S., 234–35
Kryzhanovskii, S. E., 132
kultumo-bytovaia gruppu, 276–78
Kurakin, I. A., 87
Kushelev, V. L., 130
Kutler, N. N., 148, 151
Ladomirsky, N. N., 99
land captains, 166–67, 201, 223, 287
land reform issue: First and Second Dumas’ commitment to expropriation, 47; Octobrists’ program on, 73, 75; All-Russian Union of Landowners upholds inviolability of private property, 147–49; United Nobility’s stand on, 156–57; peasants’ overwhelming interest in, 220, 282; initial peasant enthusiasm changes to disillusionment, 226–27, 232–33; and crop rotation systems, 247–49
landed nobility: domination of rural political system, 1–25; rift with bureaucracy, 7–8, 30–31, 125, 262–63, 268–69; political mobilization of, 8–9; and elections to Dumas, 9–25; profile of, 21–22; nationality of, 21; occupations of, 21–22; as a service class, 22, 35–36, 261–62, 275–78; characteristics of, 23–24; as “gentry,” 30, 90; liberalism in zemstvos followed by reaction, 1905–1907, 30–66; intelligentsia, 36; economic decline of, 36–37, 143–44; marshals of, 40–42, 124–25, 144, 150–58; dual involvement with agriculture and public service, 47–48; attitude toward peasants, 48; and the Octobrists, 67–93; and elections to Third Duma, 95–122; landholdings of, 105–109, 155, 199–200; in western provinces, Russians vs. Poles, 105109; participation in State Council, 123–41; United Nobility, 126, 14273; political role of, 144–45; and political unification issue, 151–54; political behavior in zemstvos, 18692; diminishing numbers, 199–200, 294–96; relationship with peasants, 233–35; dominant role in politics of countryside, 261–300; self-image as particularistic group identified with the state, 261–62; return to land, 262–63; and Liberation Movement, 263–65; psychological trauma of peasants’ repudiation, 266–67; indifference to party politics, 270–72; support of Octobrists, 273–74; Particularistic culture of, 275–77; dependence on the state and the monarch, 277–78; as dominating body politic under System of the Third of June, 292–96
landowners’ curia, 12–25, 83–84
Landowners Union, 147–50, 170
Larskii, I., 190
latifundii, 23
Law of December 11, 11–14
Law of June 3, 18–19
Left Octobrists, 269, 271–72, 278
Lenin, N., and System of Third of June, 4–5
Lerkhe, G. G., 72
Levanidov, P. A., 244
Levshin, D. D., 167
liberalism, of gentry in zemstvos, 30–66
Liberation Movement: economic crisis and rise of, 37; and 1905 zemstvo sessions, 42–43; opposition to, 4344; paternalism toward peasants, 48; and progressive cause, 50; urban leadership of, 263–64; self-affirmation against state power, 264–65
Lifland peasantry’s political mentality, 243–46, 288
Lindeman, K. E., 88
Lithuanian peasantry’s political mentality, 244–45
Lobanov-Rostovskii, A. N., 166
local reform projects, 128–29, 165–67, 269, 294–96
L’vov, G. E., 50, 80
Makarov, A. A., 166
Maklakov, V. A., 166
market relations, western landowners’ involvement in, 107–10
marketing activities of peasants, 24647
Markov, N. E. II, 97, 158, 270
marshals of the nobility: call for national assembly, 40; political evolution of, 41–42; and state bureaucracy, 124–25; and issue of political unification of the nobility, 144, 15054; tension with United Nobility, 156–58; and peasant voting, 223; and gentry domination of System of the Third of June, 294–96
Mazurenko, G. G., 232
Mel’nikov, N. F., 147
Mensheviks, and System of Third of June, 5–6
Menshikov, M., 155
Miliukov, P. N., 3, 32, 88
Miliutin, Iu. N., 72, 75
Ministry of Internal Affairs: discretionary power to create curiae, 95; western zemstvos appointed by, 106; Council of the Local Economy, 132, 159, 163, 165, 185–86, 295
Mirnoobnovlentsy, 81
Moslems, political role, 231
multifield rotation system, 247–49, 281
nakazy, 282
Namier, Lewis, 102, 265
narodnye sotsialisty, 282
Naryshkin, A. A., 129, 146, 154, 155, 165, 166
national assemblies. See Dumas
national curiae, 135–37
National Group, 104
nationalism: Octobrists’ espousal of, 83; Stolypin’s adoption of policy of, 133–35; and Western Zemstvo bill, 134–38
Nationalists: emergence in elections to Third Duma, 94–122; compared with Octobrists, 97–104, 114–18; compared with pravye, 99; social origins of, 101–102; nobility’s control over, 102; educational background, 10, 102–103; geographical support, 103–104; occupations, 104; landholding by, 104; and western borderlands, 104–113; and market relations, 107–10; urbanization’s effect on, 111–12; electors to Third Duma, 113–18; political behavior in western provinces, 118; and Stolypin, 205–206; and gentry reaction, 269
natsional’nost’, 21
Naumov, A. N., 150
Naval Staff bill, 132–33
Neidgardt, A. B., 133, 134, 165, 167
Nicholas II, tsar, 32, 42, 48, 160
Nikitin, A. N., 72
nobility. See landed nobility
noble assemblies. See assemblies of nobility
non-noble landowners’ curia, 13–14, 199
Novoe vremia, 83, 134, 155
October Manifesto, 40, 44, 45
Octobrists: zemstvos provide organizing nucleus, 46; and the gentry, 6990; two strains of political thought among, 69–70; Shipov and Guchkov as major figures, 70–72; central committee, 72; program, 73–75; organization, 77; membership, 78; political activities, 79; electors to First Duma, 79–81; leadership split, 8183; Second Congress repudiates liberalism, 82–83; power in Third Duma, 83–86; prestige of local notables, 85–86; center factor Zemstvo-Octobrists, 87–90; death of party, 90; in elections to Third Duma, 94–103; compared with Nationalists, 97–104, 114–18; bourgeoisie’s role in, 100; as primarily nobles, 100; lack of unity, 101; educational background, 102–103; geographical support, 103–104; landholding by, 104; occupations of, 104; electors to Third Duma, 11318; relations with Stolypin, 128, 205; political classification in zemstvos, 189–90; provincial branches, 189; and 1907 zemstvo elections, 198; peasants in party, 232, 237; Left group, 269–72; gentry support as fatal political weakness, 273–74, 278–79
Ofrosimov, Ia. A., 131, 166
Okrainy Rossii, 134
Old Believers, 133
Olsuf’ ev, D. A., 165, 167, 168
Oras, Iu. M., 229–30, 236, 241
Orthodox Church, 19, 234. See also clergy
Pares, Bernard, 102
parliamentary politics, 68
party affiliations: in zemstvos, 188–92; of peasantry, 227–35; landed gentry’s indifference to, 270–72
Patriotic Union, 42, 145–46, 160
Pavlov, N. A., 146–49, 170–72
Peaceful Renewal party, 81
peasant curia: electoral system to Dumas, 10–25; in zemstvos, 199201; landowner influence over, 22224; electoral laws’ discrimination against, 221–25; voting for, 285–88
peasantry: “grey,” 15, 283; agrarian disorders of, 44–49; victories in Duma elections, 46–49; interest in zemstvo elections of 1909–10, 200202; tax burden in zemstvos, 201202; political mentality of, 219–60; “class” vs. “estate,” 220–21, 225–42; regional differences among, 221–49, 288–89; relationship with landowners, 233–35; multifield vs. three-field agriculture of, 247–49; repudiation of nobility, 266–67; political behavior under System of Third of June, 279–92; political behavior in C.A.R., 281–84; restriction on suffrage of, 286–88; psychological isolation of, 291
Peasants’ Land Bank, 170
Peasants Union, 39, 284
Perepelkin, N. M., 72
Pertsov, N. N., 72
Petrunkevich, M. I., 196
Pikhno, D. I., 133, 134
Plevako, F. N., 72, 87
Poles: autonomy issue, 70; in western borderland, and Nationalists, 104108, 118–19; in State Council, 124; opposition to western zemstvos, 135–37
political mentality of peasantry, 21960
pomeshchiki, 4, 105–10, 278–79, 285, 292
Pototsky, A. A., 109
Pototsky, Konstantin K., 109
pravye: majority of gentry as, 82; use of term, 94n; in elections to Third Duma, 94–122; nobility’s self-image as, 97–98, 269–70
priests. See clergy
Progressist Party, 228–29
Progressive Bloc, 118
provincial electors. See electors
provincial marshals. See marshals of the nobility
Prutchenko, S. M., 130
Purishkevich, V. M., 97, 154, 168, 270
Raeff, Marc, 264
Rakovich, I. E., 167
reform of local administration, 128–29, 165–67, 269, 294–96
Regime of the Third of June. See System of the Third of June
regional differences among peasantry, 220–21, 225–49, 288–89
religion: and issue of parish vs. secular schools, 193; and political affiliations, 234. See also clergy
Riabushinskii, P. P., 72
Riabushinskii, V. P., 72
Roberti, E. V. de, 196
Rodzianko, M. V., 79, 87
rural vs. urban politics, 1–7
Russian Assembly, 148
Russian Borderland Union, 98
Russian Orthodox peasantry, 19, 234
Ryslev, A. I., 236
Samarin, A. D., 197
Samarin, F. D., 130–31, 165
Samoilov, F. N., 238
Savel’ev, Aleksandr A., 200
Savenko, A. I., 118
Savich, N. V., 85
schools, secular vs. religious, 193
Second Duma: elections to, 14–15; peasant deputies to, 15; dissolution of, 31; peasant victories in, 46–47; Octobrists in, 81–82
selskie obshchestva, 11, 18
service class, landed nobility as, 22, 35–36, 261–62, 275–78
Seymour, Richard, 101
Sharapov, S. F., 147
Shcherbatov, A. G., 147
Sheremetev, P. S., 147, 156
Shidlovskii, S. I., 86, 89
Shipov, D. N., 50–51, 70–77, 80–81, 89, 150, 196, 197
Shirinskii-Shikhmatov, A. A., 146
Shulgin, V. V., 106, 112, 118
Siberian peasants’ political mentality, 226, 243–46, 291–93
Sidoruk, V. F., 244–45
Sinitsyn, A. M., 240–41, 245
sluzhba, 277
Snezhkov, V. N., 152, 171
Social-Democrat party, 236
Socialist Revolutionaries (SR), 290–91
soslovie, 10, 22, 68, 86, 100, 276, 278
soslovnost’, 20–22, 68, 276–77
Stakhovich, M. A., 72, 75, 76, 79, 81, 150, 152–53
state: gentry’s service to, 22, 35–36; nobility’s self-identification with and dependence on, 262, 275–78
State Council: legislation drafted by, 40; membership of, 123–25; political divisions in, 126–27; and Stolypin’s politics, 127–38, 205–206; United Nobility’s influence in, 164–65; zemstvo influence in, 185; elections from zemstvos, 205–207
State Dumas. See Dumas
Stishinskii, A. S., 134, 146, 160–62, 165–67
Stiurmer, V. F., 165
Stolypin, P. A.: reform proposals, 8–9, 32, 128–32; and 1907 Zemstvo Congress, 32; and Octobrists, 81, 86, 89; and Nationalists, 99; tsar retains as prime minister, 133; moves to the right, 133–34; and politics of State Council, 127–38, 205–206; defeat on Western Zemstvos bill, 135–38; United Nobility’s influence on, 142, 159, 162–66, 169; and zemstvo politics, 185–86, 192–93, 198–99, 203207; assassination, 207
Strukov, A. P., 146, 156, 165, 167
suffrage: and Duma elections, 10; four-tail, 31, 37–38, 51–52, 267; zemstvo opinion on, 51; three-tail, 5152; gentry opposition to direct, 26667; restrictions on, 286; and peasant passivity, 286–87
Sukhomlinov, N. P., 156
Sviatopolk-Mirskii, 145
Sychev, A. A., 230–31
System of the Third of June: landed nobility’s role in, 1–29; gentry’s dominance over, 52, 204–209, 292–96; analysis of elections to Third Duma illustrates politics of, 94–122
Tarasov, P. A., 72
Tevkelev, K. B., 231
Third Duma: electoral system, 16–23; Octobrists in, 69, 83–86; analysis of elections to, 94–122; electors to, 113–17; United Nobility’s dominance in, 184–85
Third of June System. See System of the Third of June
three-field agrarian system, 247–49, 281
three-tail suffrage, 51–52
Trepov, D. F., 148
Trepov, V. F., 136, 137
Trubetskoi, E. N., 196
Trubetskoi, P. N., 42, 147, 150–58
Trubetskoi, Sergei, 150
Trudovik party, 236, 241, 243
Tsertelev, D. N., 152
uezd, 31
uezdnye s”ezdy, 11
Union of Archangel Michael, 98
Union of Landowners, 147–50, 170
Union of Liberation. See Liberation Movement
Union of October 17. See Octobrists Union of Russian Men, 42, 146–47
Union of the Russian People, 82, 9899, 148, 232, 270, 273
United Nobility: creation of, 31, 52, 68; leadership cadre, 42; as alternative to Octobrists, 82; Congresses of, 126–32; relations with Stolypin, 129–32; compared with Bund der Landwirte, 143–45; antecedents of, 145–53; marshals’ opposition to formation of, 150–54; personal landholdings of First Congress participants, 155–56; tension with marshals, 156–58; extreme right as dominant, 157; elite interventions with government, 159–61; influence on state policies, 159–69; campaign against Stolypin’s local reforms, 161–63; influence in State Council, 164–65; and local government issues, 165–67; and education reforms, 167–68, 193; influence summarized, 169; and economic questions, 169–73; nature and aims reviewed, 170–73
upol’nomochennye, 11, 13, 229
urban curia, 12–17, 23, 116
urban role in zemstvo politics, 202–203
urban vs. rural politics, 1–7
urbanization, and Nationalists, 111–12
URP. See Union of the Russian People
Urusov, A. P., 103, 104
Veselovskii, B. B., 187–88, 194–95
Volkonskii, N. S., 50–51, 72, 79
Volkonskii, V. N., 150
volostnye s”ezdy, 11
volostnye skhody, 222
Von Gubbenet, N. K., 99
vyborshchiki. See electors
western borderland: impact on Nationalists, 104–19; electors to Duma from, 113–18; political crisis over, 134–38, 204–206
Western Zemstvo bill, 134–38, 206
Witte, Sergei, 31, 48–49, 148, 151
worker electors, 238–39
workers’ curia, 12, 14, 17
Zamyslovsky, G. G., 97
zemskie nachal’niki, 166–67, 201, 223, 287
zemstvos: gentry liberalism in followed by reaction, 1905–1907, 30–66; Congresses of 1905 and 1907, 3133; educational background of participants in, 33–34; occupations of participants in, 34–35; political evolution of, 38; impact of agrarian disorders on, 44–46; purges of leftwing employees, 45; effect of agrarian electoral victories, 46–49; opinion on electorate system, 51; in western borderland, 106, 115–19; hostility to bureaucracy, 125; Stolypin’s reform proposals, 128–30; Western Zemstvo bill, 134–38; political attitudes, 1907–1914, 184218; problems in evaluating election data, 187–91; confusion over political alignments, 188–92; expansion of educational and agricultural services, 191–93; election results, 1903–10, by political tendencies, 195; rout of liberalism in, 197; landholdings of 3 curiae in, 199; peasant interest in 1909–10 elections, 200–201; urban ’ elements in, 202–203; noble domination as perpetuating crisis of Third of June System, 204–209
Zemstvo-Octobrists, 87–90
Zhilkin, I., 203
Zverev, N. A., 168
Zybin, A. I., 154
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