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A Semiotic Theory of Language: A Semiotic Theory of Language

A Semiotic Theory of Language

A Semiotic Theory of Language

Subject Index

Subject Index includes symbols of basic constants of applicative grammar and abbreviations of names of its formal concepts and rules. References are to pages where the symbols and abbreviations are defined or explained.

Absolutive: as syntactic function, 135

Abstract distinctive opposition, 40

Abstract letters, 41

Abstract phonemes, 40

Abstract phonetic features, 40

Abstract set-systems, 266

Abstract speech sounds, 40

Abstraction: semiotic basis of, 20-21; by identification, 41; of grammatical meanings from lexical meanings, 127

Accent. See Stress

Accessibility hierarchy: 150-55; as particular instance of applicative hierarchy, 153-54

Accusative constructions: defined, 143; coincidence of semantic hierarchy agent-patient with syntactic hierarchy transitive subject-direct object, 142

Accusative languages, 120

Active constructions: 128

Active languages, 120, 128-29, 138; morphological types of constructions in, 128-29

Actor, 127

Adjoined type symbols: defined, 199; examples of, 200

Affixes, 289-92

Agent. See Grammatical agent

Agentivity, 149

Agglutinating languages, 290-92

Agglutination, 290-92

Agreement. See Concord

Algorithm, 29

Allomorph, 288

Alternations of phonemes: phonetically conditioned, 47, 85; morphologically conditioned, 85, 89-92; system of, as subordinated to system of distinctive oppositions, 86

Analogies: heuristic value of, 316-17

Analytical-deductive method, 307-09

Analytic languages, 292-94

Antinomy: of paradigmatic identification of phonemes, 51, 57; of syntagmatic identification of phonemes, 51, 57-58; of transposition, 51-56

Antiabsolutive, 157

Antipassive constructions: short vs. long, 176-77; in relational grammar, 185

Antipassive voice: opposition ergative: antipassive vs. active: passive, 175-77

Application, 103

Applicative grammar: two senses of, 279; formal system, 193-201; syntactic system, 198; and categorical grammars, 193; and Montague grammar, 253-59; and generative-transformational grammar, 259-69; and relational grammar, 269-77; and lexical-functional grammar of Bresnan, 277-79; place among other semiotic systems, 284

Applicative hierarchy, 123, 153-54

Applicative languages, 279

Applicative principle, 103

Applicative system, 281-83

Applicative tree, 105-106

Archiphoneme, 47, 240

Autonomous grammar: semiotic vs. nonsemiotic conceptions of, 128; Chomsky’s notion of, 24-27

B, 209-10

B elim, 224,

C, 207-08

C⁎, 212-13

Ck, 208

C elim, 227

Case systems: active, 298-99; ergative, 299; accusative, 299-300

Causative constructions: analytic and synthetic predicates in, 251; formal derivation of, 249-50

Centaur concepts, 42, 55, 310-13

Church-Rosser theorem, 220

Class: concept of in phonological theories, 64-65; two methods of designating, 41

Class inclusion, 42

Class membership, 42

Cognitive flexibility, 18

coimp elim, 224, 227

Coimplication, 223

Coimplication elimination, 223

Coincidentia oppositorum, 53

Combinators: 207-16; assignment of types to, 214-15; and reduction rules, 207; as defined in terms of functional abstraction, 281

Combinatory calculus, 279-83

Competence, 27, 30

Complement of head: defined, 199-200

Complementarity principle, 53-54, 58-60, 310-13

Complexity hierarchy, 220-21; measure of, 220

Compositor. See B

Concatenation system: generative-transformational grammar as, 266-69

Concord, 294-95

Concrete distinctive features: defined, 35; identity of, 37-39

Concrete distinctive oppositions: defined, 34; identity of, 37-39

Concrete letters, 41

Concrete phonemes: defined, 34; vs. abstract, 40; identity of, 35

Concrete phonetic features: vs. abstract, 40; identity of, 37-39

Concrete speech sounds: vs. abstract, 40; identity of, 32-34, 36

Condition of synchronic motivation: as constraint on possible phonological rules, 85

Confluentor: See S

Consonants: phonological vs. phonetic definition of, 74-76; primary vs. secondary functions of, 75; as vowels, 75; extrasyllabic, 76-77

Constituency: as part-whole relation independent of linearity, 105-06; confusion with linear order of constituents in generative-transformational grammar, 106, 265-69

Constituents: as independent of their linear order, 106

Construction rules, 216-17

Contrast: 8

Conversion: defined, 119; covert, 240-41

Copernican astronomy: and conceptual problems, 304-05

Correspondence hypothesis, 135-36

Culminative function: as defined by Trubetzkoy, 66; generalized concept of, 67-70

Currying, 279

Cybernetics: concept of very large system in, 18; analogy with synchronic linguistics, 314-15

Darwin’s evolutionary biology: and conceptual problems, 304

Deductive processes: reduction and expansion, 218-24; technique of their presentation, 222-23

Deep structure, 263, 269

def, 227

Defective distribution, 47-48

Definitional replacement rule, 217

Definitions: as hypotheses, 52, 62

Deictic function, 9, 287

Deixis. See Deictic function

Deletability. See Omissibility

Dependency grammars, 107-08

Dependency trees: in dependency grammars, 107; in genotype grammar, 108

Dependency: as generalized concept of dependency relation, 106-07; in dependency grammars, 106-09

Dependent: generalized concept of, 107

Derelativization, 208

Diacritic principle, 308

Diacritic stratum, 5

Diacritic: analysis of, 5

Dialectics: 53-54, 58-60

Differentiation: principle of maximum, 111, 116

Differentiation of signs: principle of, 34

Direct-object-of relation, 179-80

Dispensability. See Omissibility

Distinctive oppositions: concrete vs. abstract, 34-35, 40; neutralization of, 47; system of, as independent of system of phonemic alternations, 86

Dominance law: 123, 139

Dual classification: of speech sounds, 37-38; of phonetic features, 39

Duality, law of: in syntax and phonology, 140-41, 316-17

Duals, 140

Dummy term: defined, 228; zero dummy term, 230

Duplicator. See W

Duration: conflict between analyses of in phonology and experimental phonetics, 48-50

Ellipsis, 133

Elimination, 224

Empirical necessity: vs. logical necessity, 28-29

Empiricist philosophies of science, 305

eq pas, 227

eq pas antipas, 237

Equi-NP deletion: in English and Basque, 130-31

Ergative constructions: defined 143; conflict between semantic hierarchy agent-patient and syntactic hierarchy absolutive-ergative, 142; voices in, 155-56

Ergative languages, 120

Ergative: as syntactic function, 135

Ergativity: paradox of, 135; integrated theory of, 135-45; as grammatical category, 146-50; and extraction rules, 149; split, 156-58; split as special case of law of duality, 157-58

Expansion: 222; direct, 222

Expansion rules, 217

Experimental phonetics, 48-50

Explanation: its independence of prediction, 305-06; circularity in, 307

Expressive function, 9

Extrasyllabic consonants, 76-77

Family of sentences, 220-21

Fictionalism, 29

Fitch’s technique of formal deduction, 222-23

Frege’s conception of function, 279

Freud’s psychoanalytic theories: and conceptual problems, 304

Functional abstraction, 281-82

Functional segmentation of speech flow: conditions on, 43-46

Functional superposition: 116-17; and paradox of ergativity, 129-45; in long passive constructions, 163-73

Functional transposition, 113-16

Functional unit: 94; its various realizations by different syntagmatic units, 96-97

Functional units, 94-97

Fusion, 290-92

Fusional languages, 290-92

Generation, 27

Generative grammar, 27-31

Generative phonology: as phonological component of generative-transformational grammar, 80; wrong arguments against existence of phonemic level, 80-83; fundamental error of, 86-87; arbitrariness of ordering hypothesis, 87; confusion of functional description with internal reconstruction, 87-88, 323-25; confusion of diachronic notion “phonetic change” with synchronic notion “phonemic alternation,” 87-92

Generative-transformational grammar: compared with applicative grammar, 259-69; theory of passive in, 177-78

Generativism: as methodological postulate, 29-31

Genotype grammar: defined, 97

Genotype language: two senses of, 279; as language that belongs in class of applicative languages, 279; relationship with LISP, 282-83

Glossematics, 327

Government, 295-96

Grammar: two-level theory of, 94-101

Grammatical agent: as primitive grammatical category, 121; independent of lexical meaning “agent,” 125-28, 149-50

Grammatical formatives: morphological, 289-90, 292; syntagmatic, 292-94

Grammatical meaning: vs. lexical meaning, 125-28, 149-50

Grammatical morphemes, 288-89

Grammatical patient: as primitive grammatical category, 121; independent of lexical meaning “patient,” 125-28, 149-50

Head: defined, 199-200

Homonymy: 13-16

Humboldt’s conception of language: and generativism, 30-31

hyp, 23

Iconicity: principle of, 142

Identificator. See Combinator I

Identity: problem of in phonology, 32, 34; of speech sounds, 33-37; of phonetic features, 37-39; law of phonemic identity, 35

Imaginary experiments: defined, 309; in phonology, 36-39, 71, 79-80, 86, 308; in grammar, 101, 126

Immediate constituents: as independent of their linear order, 106

Impersonal constructions, 229

Impersonal passive constructions, 229-31; with transitive predicates, 231-33

Impersonal relation, 229

Indirect-object-of relation, 179-80

Inflectional morphemes, 289

Intensional logic, 254

Interlude, 73

Intonation: phonological function of, 70

Intransitive constructions: defined, 120

K, 211

K elim, 229

Lambda-calculus, 279-83

Language: natural vs. artificial, 1; semiotic definition of, 2-13; as instrument of cognition, 310-11; semiotic vs. generativist notion of, 23-31

Languageg, 218

Languagep, 218

Languages with active system. See Active languages

Lexical-functional grammar of Bresnan, compared with applicative grammar, 277-79

Lexical morphemes, 288

Linguistic anomalies, 145, 309-10

Linguistic categories, 297-98

Linguistic level, 9

Linguistic methodology. See Abstraction; Analogies; Analytical deductive method; Antinomy; Centaur concepts; Class; Class inclusion; Class membership; Complementarity principle; Dialectics; Empirical necessity; Fictionalism; Explanation; Generativism; Imaginary experiments; Linguistic anomalies; Linguistic theory; Linguistic phenomenon; Linguistic reality; Logical necessity; Mathematical consistency; Mathematical formalism; Meta-languages of linguistic theories; Prediction; Problems; Semiotic reality

Linguistic phenomenon, 145, 309

Linguistic reality: distortion of, 30

Linguistic theory: goals of, 20-21; metalanguage of, 311-15

Linguistics: as part of semiotics, 17-19; synchronic vs. diachronic, 21-22; synchronic vs. static, 22; abstraction from space and time in, 23

LISP: as programming language for artificial intelligence, 282; its relationship with combinatory calculus and genotype language, 282-83

Logical necessity: as mathematical concept, 28-29

Logical syntax and semantics, 254

Markedness law: 122-23, 138-39

Markedness relation, 139

Mathematical consistency, 28-29

Mathematical formalism: its power for compressing information, 318-19; and linguistic theory, 319-20; abuse of, 93, 320-21

Meaning ↔ text model, 327

Meaning: analysis of, 3-4; grammatical meaning vs. lexical meaning, 125-28

Meaning-of relation, 3

Mental experiments. See Imaginary experiments

Merger of phonemes, 47

Meta-languages of linguistic theories: as instruments of cognition, 311-12; intranslatability of, 332; static and dynamic, 313-15

Mirror-image deductions in accusative and ergative languages, 235-38

Modifier of head: defined, 199-200

Modus ponens, 223

Moneme, 297

Monotectonic property of languages of mathematics and logic, 7

Monovocalic phonological systems: hypotheses of, 71

Montague grammar: compared with applicative grammar, 253-59

Mora, 79

Morph, 288

Morpheme: variants of, 288; grammatical vs. lexical, 288-89; free vs. bound, 288; functional vs. derivational, 289

Morphophonological rules: vs. phonological rules, 92

Motivations for new theories, 219

Natural deduction, 222

Natural language: as very large system, 18; cognitive flexibility of, 18; dialects of, 22-23

Necessity: empirical vs. logical, 28-29

Neutralization of syntactic opposition primary term: secondary term, 136-39, 239-49

Newton’s “system of the world”: and conceptual problems, 304

Normal forms, 218; superstructure of, 221; deduction of, 222-23

O, 195

Obligatory intransitivity, 241-44

Oblique terms, 123-25; as marginal to central terms, 125

Omissibility, 133-34

One-place predicate: defined, 103, 198

Operand: 101; pleonastic, 211

Operationality, 195

Operationality primitive, 195

Operator: 101

Opposition: 8

Paradigmatic relations, 8

Paradigmatic classes of concrete phonemes: identity of, 35

Passive-antipassive relation, 237

Passive constructions: short vs. long, 162-69; defined, 171; derelativized predicates in, 165-66; impersonal, 173-75; incorporations of terms in, 232; history of in English, 167

Passive predicates: ambiguity of, 161; meaning of, 161-62

Passive voice: inherent function of, 166; and antipassive, 175-77; split, 156

Passivization: of indirect object, 189-91; of tertiary term, 171, 233-35; intransitive predicate, 186-88; paradox of, 172; informal theory of, 160-77; formal theory of, 225-38; alternative theories of, 177-93

Patient. See Grammatical patient

Performance, 27, 30

Permutator. See C

Phenotype grammar: defined, 97; task of, 284

Philosophy of language, 30

Philosophy of science: conceptualism vs. positivism, 305

Phoneme: differentiating function of, 5; concrete vs. abstract, 36-40; as sound/diacritic, 50-55; as bundle of distinctive features, 63-65; as class of sounds, 63-64; unmarked and marked, 140-41; Trubetzkoy’s conception of phoneme, 63-66

Phonemic identity: law of, 35

Phones: 32

Phonetic features: concrete vs. abstract, 39-40; logical independence of functional and physical classification of, 39

Phonic relativity: 34

Phonological antinomies, 50-55

Phonological contrast, law of, 70

Phonological functions: law of, 71

Phonological opposition, law of, 70

Phonological opposition: operational definition of, 67

Phonological rules: vs. morphophonological rules, 92

Phonological syntagmatics, 66-77

Phonological universals, 70-71

Phonological word, 69-70

Phonology: two-level theory of, 32-93

Physical segmentation of speech flow, 43-46

Pivot: 142

Polymorphism: principle of, 173-74

Polytectonic property of natural languages, 7

Polyvalence, 14, 327

Position of sounds, 34

Predicate frames, 110-13

Predicate modifiers, 96, 112

Predicates-superposers, 205

Predicates: as functional units representing sentences, 94-95; formal definition of, 103-04

Predicates: informal definition of, 103-04

Predicates: modifiers of, 112

Prediction: its independence of explanation, 305-06

Primary and secondary syntactic functions, 114-16

Primary term: defined, 103, 198; as central to predicate frame, 122-25; as analogue of archiphoneme, 240; nonomissibility of, 139-40

Problems: empirical as first-order questions vs. conceptual as higher-order questions, 301-06

Programming languages, 279-80

Pronoun connection, 246

Prosodic features: types of, 78-79; relational nature of, 79-80

Psychology: and linguistics, 19

Ptolemian astronomy: and conceptual problems, 304-05

Quantum mechanics: and conceptual problems, 304

Quasi-applicative system, 281, 283

Quasi-passive constructions, 155-56

R, 244,

<R> 219

R elim, 247

R-laws, 246

Recessive diathesis, 243

Reduction rules, 207, 217

Reduction: as deductive process, 218; direct, 218; linguistic sense of, 219

Reduction by conversion: law of, 237

Reflexive constructions: formal theory of, 238-49; formal derivation of, 245-49

Reflexive neutralization: hypothesis of, 244; analogy with phonological neutralization, 239-40, 245

Reflexive operator: 245; formal laws of its action, 246

Reflexive predicates: as obligatorily intransitive predicates, 241; plain and converse, 240-42; markedness opposition reflexive predicate: passive predicate, 241; and nonreflexive intransitive counterparts, 242-43

Relation eq pas, 226

Relation eq pas antipas, 237

Relation R, 219-20

Relational grammar: compared with applicative grammar, 269-79; relational network, 270; stratum and stratal diagrams, 271; notion of chomeur, 191-92, 275-76; theory of passive in, 179-92

Relational system: applicative grammar as, 267-69

Relativity: linguistic, 11-13; phonic, 34

Relativization, 208

rep, 227

Replacement rules, 217

Representational function, 9, 286

Representational relevance: principle of, 101

Resultant: 101

Rewriting rules, 92-93

Root, 289-90

Rule E, 196

Rule E1, 196

Rule E2, 196

Rule S1, 202

Rule S2, 202

Rule S3, 202

Rule S4, 202

Rule S5, 203

Rule S6, 203

Rules: system of as semiotic property of language, 6-7

s, 195

S, 210

S-structure, 221

Saussure’s theory of Indo-European vocalism, 60-61

Secondary term: defined, 104, 198; as central to predicate frame, 122-25

Semantic field, 220

Semiotic method, 29

Semiotic reality: defined, 321; determined by principle of semiotic relevance, 322; and hierarchical stratification, 323; consequences of its disregard, 323-25

Semiotic relevance: 10-13; principle of, 11; and homonymy, 14

Semiotic strata: 2-6

Semiotics, 18; linguistics as part of, 17-19

Sentence constructions: typology of, 120-29

Sentence nests, 251-53

Sentence: as functional unit transmitting messages, 94; as represented by its predicate, 94-95

Sequencing: 6

Sign: analysis of, 3-4; principle of differentiation of signs, 5, 34; polyvalent, 14, 327; Saussure’s notion of, 16-17; unilateral vs. bilateral, 17

Sign-of relation, 3

Sign stratum, 3

Skinner’s behaviorism: and conceptual problems, 304

Sound type: 40

Speech flow: functional segmentation of vs. physical segmentation, 43; conditions on functional segmentation, 44-46

Speech sound variability: principle of, 33

Speech sounds: abstract vs. concrete, 40; logical independence of functional and physical classification of, 39, 42; perception of, 43, 48-50

Stative constructions, 128

Stem, 289-90

Stratification: hierarchical, 8-10

Stratificational linguistics, 327

Stress: primary and secondary function of, 68; culminative function of, 66, 69-70; types of, 78

Structure-changing rules, 217

Structure: 7-8

Subject-of relation, 179-80

Subject raising: in English and Tongan, 130-31

Subjects: nonomissibility of, 133-34; arguments against universality of, 121-22

Superabsolutive, 157

Superficial structure, 221

Superposer: 202

Superposition. See Functional superposition.

Superstructure of normal form. See Normal form

Suprafixes, 289-90

Surface structure, 263, 269

Suspension: principle of, 15

Syllable: defined, 73; central vs. noncentral, 68-69; structure of, 72-73; boundary, 73-74

Symbolic function, 287

Synchronic motivation: condition on, 85

Syntactic connections: between functional units vs. between syntagmatic units, 97-101

Syntactic neutralization, 136-39

Syntactic neutralization hypothesis: vs. unaccusative hypothesis, 188-89

Syntactic opposition primary term: secondary term: as central to syntactic organization of natural language, 122-25

Syntactic rules of applicative grammar: basic, 196-97; for expressions that belong to stratified types, 202-04

Syntagm: 94

Syntagmatic relations, 8

Syntagmatic units, 94-97

Syntaxeme: 109-10, 287

Synthetic languages, 292-94

Systemic grammar, 327

Tagmemics, 327

t, 195, 198

Terms: as functional units, 95-96; formal definition of, 103-04, 198; unmarked and marked, 139; modifiers of, 96, 112; subtypes of, 205-06

Tertiary term: defined, 104, 198; as intermediary between central and oblique terms, 125

Thought experiment: See Imaginary experiment

Three-place predicate: defined, 104, 198

Topic, 121

Transitive constructions: defined, 120

Transposition: in grammar. See Functional transposition

Transposition of phonological structure, principle of, 79

Transrelativization, 208

Two-level principle: in phonology, 42; in grammar, 97

Two-level theory of grammar, 94-101, 265-69

Two-level theory of phonology, 42

Two-level system of phonological concepts, 40

Two-place predicate: defined, 104, 198

Types: 194-96; superposition of, 201-06; stratified, 202

Unaccusative hypothesis: 187-89

Undergoer, 127

Unity of opposites, 53-55

Universal grammar, 254-55

Unspecified term, 226

Valence: generalized, 117; decrease and increase of, 118; relational change of, 118; quantitative, 119; relational, 119

Value: in linguistics and political economy, 53

Vocalism: law of minimal, 71

Vocative function, 99

Voice: defined, 119

Vowels: phonological vs. phonetic definition of, 74-76; primary vs. secondary functions of, 75-76; as consonants, 74-76

W, 208

Wk, 209

W elim, 224

Well-formed expressions: defined, 197

Word: phonological, 68; grammatical, defined, 285-86; Bloomfield’s definition of, 285-86; autonomous vs. nonautonomous, 286-87; as morphological crystallization of syntaxemes, 285; confusion of grammatical and phonological notions of, 285

Ø0, 224

∅˄, 228

𝛟, 213

𝚿, 213

≡, 194

= , 199, 223

▷, 207

◁, 217

⊨, 218

⊢, 218

⫤, 222

⊣,, 222

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