Subject Index includes symbols of basic constants of applicative grammar and abbreviations of names of its formal concepts and rules. References are to pages where the symbols and abbreviations are defined or explained.
Absolutive: as syntactic function, 135
Abstract distinctive opposition, 40
Abstract letters, 41
Abstract phonemes, 40
Abstract phonetic features, 40
Abstract set-systems, 266
Abstract speech sounds, 40
Abstraction: semiotic basis of, 20-21; by identification, 41; of grammatical meanings from lexical meanings, 127
Accent. See Stress
Accessibility hierarchy: 150-55; as particular instance of applicative hierarchy, 153-54
Accusative constructions: defined, 143; coincidence of semantic hierarchy agent-patient with syntactic hierarchy transitive subject-direct object, 142
Accusative languages, 120
Active constructions: 128
Active languages, 120, 128-29, 138; morphological types of constructions in, 128-29
Actor, 127
Adjoined type symbols: defined, 199; examples of, 200
Affixes, 289-92
Agent. See Grammatical agent
Agentivity, 149
Agglutinating languages, 290-92
Agglutination, 290-92
Agreement. See Concord
Algorithm, 29
Allomorph, 288
Alternations of phonemes: phonetically conditioned, 47, 85; morphologically conditioned, 85, 89-92; system of, as subordinated to system of distinctive oppositions, 86
Analogies: heuristic value of, 316-17
Analytical-deductive method, 307-09
Analytic languages, 292-94
Antinomy: of paradigmatic identification of phonemes, 51, 57; of syntagmatic identification of phonemes, 51, 57-58; of transposition, 51-56
Antiabsolutive, 157
Antipassive constructions: short vs. long, 176-77; in relational grammar, 185
Antipassive voice: opposition ergative: antipassive vs. active: passive, 175-77
Application, 103
Applicative grammar: two senses of, 279; formal system, 193-201; syntactic system, 198; and categorical grammars, 193; and Montague grammar, 253-59; and generative-transformational grammar, 259-69; and relational grammar, 269-77; and lexical-functional grammar of Bresnan, 277-79; place among other semiotic systems, 284
Applicative hierarchy, 123, 153-54
Applicative languages, 279
Applicative principle, 103
Applicative system, 281-83
Applicative tree, 105-106
Archiphoneme, 47, 240
Autonomous grammar: semiotic vs. nonsemiotic conceptions of, 128; Chomsky’s notion of, 24-27
B, 209-10
B elim, 224,
C, 207-08
C⁎, 212-13
Ck, 208
C elim, 227
Case systems: active, 298-99; ergative, 299; accusative, 299-300
Causative constructions: analytic and synthetic predicates in, 251; formal derivation of, 249-50
Centaur concepts, 42, 55, 310-13
Church-Rosser theorem, 220
Class: concept of in phonological theories, 64-65; two methods of designating, 41
Class inclusion, 42
Class membership, 42
Cognitive flexibility, 18
coimp elim, 224, 227
Coimplication, 223
Coimplication elimination, 223
Coincidentia oppositorum, 53
Combinators: 207-16; assignment of types to, 214-15; and reduction rules, 207; as defined in terms of functional abstraction, 281
Combinatory calculus, 279-83
Competence, 27, 30
Complement of head: defined, 199-200
Complementarity principle, 53-54, 58-60, 310-13
Complexity hierarchy, 220-21; measure of, 220
Compositor. See B
Concatenation system: generative-transformational grammar as, 266-69
Concord, 294-95
Concrete distinctive features: defined, 35; identity of, 37-39
Concrete distinctive oppositions: defined, 34; identity of, 37-39
Concrete letters, 41
Concrete phonemes: defined, 34; vs. abstract, 40; identity of, 35
Concrete phonetic features: vs. abstract, 40; identity of, 37-39
Concrete speech sounds: vs. abstract, 40; identity of, 32-34, 36
Condition of synchronic motivation: as constraint on possible phonological rules, 85
Confluentor: See S
Consonants: phonological vs. phonetic definition of, 74-76; primary vs. secondary functions of, 75; as vowels, 75; extrasyllabic, 76-77
Constituency: as part-whole relation independent of linearity, 105-06; confusion with linear order of constituents in generative-transformational grammar, 106, 265-69
Constituents: as independent of their linear order, 106
Construction rules, 216-17
Contrast: 8
Conversion: defined, 119; covert, 240-41
Copernican astronomy: and conceptual problems, 304-05
Correspondence hypothesis, 135-36
Culminative function: as defined by Trubetzkoy, 66; generalized concept of, 67-70
Currying, 279
Cybernetics: concept of very large system in, 18; analogy with synchronic linguistics, 314-15
Darwin’s evolutionary biology: and conceptual problems, 304
Deductive processes: reduction and expansion, 218-24; technique of their presentation, 222-23
Deep structure, 263, 269
def, 227
Defective distribution, 47-48
Definitional replacement rule, 217
Definitions: as hypotheses, 52, 62
Deictic function, 9, 287
Deixis. See Deictic function
Deletability. See Omissibility
Dependency grammars, 107-08
Dependency trees: in dependency grammars, 107; in genotype grammar, 108
Dependency: as generalized concept of dependency relation, 106-07; in dependency grammars, 106-09
Dependent: generalized concept of, 107
Derelativization, 208
Diacritic principle, 308
Diacritic stratum, 5
Diacritic: analysis of, 5
Dialectics: 53-54, 58-60
Differentiation: principle of maximum, 111, 116
Differentiation of signs: principle of, 34
Direct-object-of relation, 179-80
Dispensability. See Omissibility
Distinctive oppositions: concrete vs. abstract, 34-35, 40; neutralization of, 47; system of, as independent of system of phonemic alternations, 86
Dominance law: 123, 139
Dual classification: of speech sounds, 37-38; of phonetic features, 39
Duality, law of: in syntax and phonology, 140-41, 316-17
Duals, 140
Dummy term: defined, 228; zero dummy term, 230
Duplicator. See W
Duration: conflict between analyses of in phonology and experimental phonetics, 48-50
Ellipsis, 133
Elimination, 224
Empirical necessity: vs. logical necessity, 28-29
Empiricist philosophies of science, 305
eq pas, 227
eq pas antipas, 237
Equi-NP deletion: in English and Basque, 130-31
Ergative constructions: defined 143; conflict between semantic hierarchy agent-patient and syntactic hierarchy absolutive-ergative, 142; voices in, 155-56
Ergative languages, 120
Ergative: as syntactic function, 135
Ergativity: paradox of, 135; integrated theory of, 135-45; as grammatical category, 146-50; and extraction rules, 149; split, 156-58; split as special case of law of duality, 157-58
Expansion: 222; direct, 222
Expansion rules, 217
Experimental phonetics, 48-50
Explanation: its independence of prediction, 305-06; circularity in, 307
Expressive function, 9
Extrasyllabic consonants, 76-77
Family of sentences, 220-21
Fictionalism, 29
Fitch’s technique of formal deduction, 222-23
Frege’s conception of function, 279
Freud’s psychoanalytic theories: and conceptual problems, 304
Functional abstraction, 281-82
Functional segmentation of speech flow: conditions on, 43-46
Functional superposition: 116-17; and paradox of ergativity, 129-45; in long passive constructions, 163-73
Functional transposition, 113-16
Functional unit: 94; its various realizations by different syntagmatic units, 96-97
Functional units, 94-97
Fusion, 290-92
Fusional languages, 290-92
Generation, 27
Generative grammar, 27-31
Generative phonology: as phonological component of generative-transformational grammar, 80; wrong arguments against existence of phonemic level, 80-83; fundamental error of, 86-87; arbitrariness of ordering hypothesis, 87; confusion of functional description with internal reconstruction, 87-88, 323-25; confusion of diachronic notion “phonetic change” with synchronic notion “phonemic alternation,” 87-92
Generative-transformational grammar: compared with applicative grammar, 259-69; theory of passive in, 177-78
Generativism: as methodological postulate, 29-31
Genotype grammar: defined, 97
Genotype language: two senses of, 279; as language that belongs in class of applicative languages, 279; relationship with LISP, 282-83
Glossematics, 327
Government, 295-96
Grammar: two-level theory of, 94-101
Grammatical agent: as primitive grammatical category, 121; independent of lexical meaning “agent,” 125-28, 149-50
Grammatical formatives: morphological, 289-90, 292; syntagmatic, 292-94
Grammatical meaning: vs. lexical meaning, 125-28, 149-50
Grammatical morphemes, 288-89
Grammatical patient: as primitive grammatical category, 121; independent of lexical meaning “patient,” 125-28, 149-50
Head: defined, 199-200
Homonymy: 13-16
Humboldt’s conception of language: and generativism, 30-31
hyp, 23
Iconicity: principle of, 142
Identificator. See Combinator I
Identity: problem of in phonology, 32, 34; of speech sounds, 33-37; of phonetic features, 37-39; law of phonemic identity, 35
Imaginary experiments: defined, 309; in phonology, 36-39, 71, 79-80, 86, 308; in grammar, 101, 126
Immediate constituents: as independent of their linear order, 106
Impersonal constructions, 229
Impersonal passive constructions, 229-31; with transitive predicates, 231-33
Impersonal relation, 229
Indirect-object-of relation, 179-80
Inflectional morphemes, 289
Intensional logic, 254
Interlude, 73
Intonation: phonological function of, 70
Intransitive constructions: defined, 120
K, 211
K elim, 229
Lambda-calculus, 279-83
Language: natural vs. artificial, 1; semiotic definition of, 2-13; as instrument of cognition, 310-11; semiotic vs. generativist notion of, 23-31
Languageg, 218
Languagep, 218
Languages with active system. See Active languages
Lexical-functional grammar of Bresnan, compared with applicative grammar, 277-79
Lexical morphemes, 288
Linguistic anomalies, 145, 309-10
Linguistic categories, 297-98
Linguistic level, 9
Linguistic methodology. See Abstraction; Analogies; Analytical deductive method; Antinomy; Centaur concepts; Class; Class inclusion; Class membership; Complementarity principle; Dialectics; Empirical necessity; Fictionalism; Explanation; Generativism; Imaginary experiments; Linguistic anomalies; Linguistic theory; Linguistic phenomenon; Linguistic reality; Logical necessity; Mathematical consistency; Mathematical formalism; Meta-languages of linguistic theories; Prediction; Problems; Semiotic reality
Linguistic phenomenon, 145, 309
Linguistic reality: distortion of, 30
Linguistic theory: goals of, 20-21; metalanguage of, 311-15
Linguistics: as part of semiotics, 17-19; synchronic vs. diachronic, 21-22; synchronic vs. static, 22; abstraction from space and time in, 23
LISP: as programming language for artificial intelligence, 282; its relationship with combinatory calculus and genotype language, 282-83
Logical necessity: as mathematical concept, 28-29
Logical syntax and semantics, 254
Markedness law: 122-23, 138-39
Markedness relation, 139
Mathematical consistency, 28-29
Mathematical formalism: its power for compressing information, 318-19; and linguistic theory, 319-20; abuse of, 93, 320-21
Meaning ↔ text model, 327
Meaning: analysis of, 3-4; grammatical meaning vs. lexical meaning, 125-28
Meaning-of relation, 3
Mental experiments. See Imaginary experiments
Merger of phonemes, 47
Meta-languages of linguistic theories: as instruments of cognition, 311-12; intranslatability of, 332; static and dynamic, 313-15
Mirror-image deductions in accusative and ergative languages, 235-38
Modifier of head: defined, 199-200
Modus ponens, 223
Moneme, 297
Monotectonic property of languages of mathematics and logic, 7
Monovocalic phonological systems: hypotheses of, 71
Montague grammar: compared with applicative grammar, 253-59
Mora, 79
Morph, 288
Morpheme: variants of, 288; grammatical vs. lexical, 288-89; free vs. bound, 288; functional vs. derivational, 289
Morphophonological rules: vs. phonological rules, 92
Motivations for new theories, 219
Natural deduction, 222
Natural language: as very large system, 18; cognitive flexibility of, 18; dialects of, 22-23
Necessity: empirical vs. logical, 28-29
Neutralization of syntactic opposition primary term: secondary term, 136-39, 239-49
Newton’s “system of the world”: and conceptual problems, 304
Normal forms, 218; superstructure of, 221; deduction of, 222-23
O, 195
Obligatory intransitivity, 241-44
Oblique terms, 123-25; as marginal to central terms, 125
Omissibility, 133-34
One-place predicate: defined, 103, 198
Operand: 101; pleonastic, 211
Operationality, 195
Operationality primitive, 195
Operator: 101
Opposition: 8
Paradigmatic relations, 8
Paradigmatic classes of concrete phonemes: identity of, 35
Passive-antipassive relation, 237
Passive constructions: short vs. long, 162-69; defined, 171; derelativized predicates in, 165-66; impersonal, 173-75; incorporations of terms in, 232; history of in English, 167
Passive predicates: ambiguity of, 161; meaning of, 161-62
Passive voice: inherent function of, 166; and antipassive, 175-77; split, 156
Passivization: of indirect object, 189-91; of tertiary term, 171, 233-35; intransitive predicate, 186-88; paradox of, 172; informal theory of, 160-77; formal theory of, 225-38; alternative theories of, 177-93
Patient. See Grammatical patient
Performance, 27, 30
Permutator. See C
Phenotype grammar: defined, 97; task of, 284
Philosophy of language, 30
Philosophy of science: conceptualism vs. positivism, 305
Phoneme: differentiating function of, 5; concrete vs. abstract, 36-40; as sound/diacritic, 50-55; as bundle of distinctive features, 63-65; as class of sounds, 63-64; unmarked and marked, 140-41; Trubetzkoy’s conception of phoneme, 63-66
Phonemic identity: law of, 35
Phones: 32
Phonetic features: concrete vs. abstract, 39-40; logical independence of functional and physical classification of, 39
Phonic relativity: 34
Phonological antinomies, 50-55
Phonological contrast, law of, 70
Phonological functions: law of, 71
Phonological opposition, law of, 70
Phonological opposition: operational definition of, 67
Phonological rules: vs. morphophonological rules, 92
Phonological syntagmatics, 66-77
Phonological universals, 70-71
Phonological word, 69-70
Phonology: two-level theory of, 32-93
Physical segmentation of speech flow, 43-46
Pivot: 142
Polymorphism: principle of, 173-74
Polytectonic property of natural languages, 7
Polyvalence, 14, 327
Position of sounds, 34
Predicate frames, 110-13
Predicate modifiers, 96, 112
Predicates-superposers, 205
Predicates: as functional units representing sentences, 94-95; formal definition of, 103-04
Predicates: informal definition of, 103-04
Predicates: modifiers of, 112
Prediction: its independence of explanation, 305-06
Primary and secondary syntactic functions, 114-16
Primary term: defined, 103, 198; as central to predicate frame, 122-25; as analogue of archiphoneme, 240; nonomissibility of, 139-40
Problems: empirical as first-order questions vs. conceptual as higher-order questions, 301-06
Programming languages, 279-80
Pronoun connection, 246
Prosodic features: types of, 78-79; relational nature of, 79-80
Psychology: and linguistics, 19
Ptolemian astronomy: and conceptual problems, 304-05
Quantum mechanics: and conceptual problems, 304
Quasi-applicative system, 281, 283
Quasi-passive constructions, 155-56
R, 244,
<R> 219
R elim, 247
R-laws, 246
Recessive diathesis, 243
Reduction rules, 207, 217
Reduction: as deductive process, 218; direct, 218; linguistic sense of, 219
Reduction by conversion: law of, 237
Reflexive constructions: formal theory of, 238-49; formal derivation of, 245-49
Reflexive neutralization: hypothesis of, 244; analogy with phonological neutralization, 239-40, 245
Reflexive operator: 245; formal laws of its action, 246
Reflexive predicates: as obligatorily intransitive predicates, 241; plain and converse, 240-42; markedness opposition reflexive predicate: passive predicate, 241; and nonreflexive intransitive counterparts, 242-43
Relation eq pas, 226
Relation eq pas antipas, 237
Relation R, 219-20
Relational grammar: compared with applicative grammar, 269-79; relational network, 270; stratum and stratal diagrams, 271; notion of chomeur, 191-92, 275-76; theory of passive in, 179-92
Relational system: applicative grammar as, 267-69
Relativity: linguistic, 11-13; phonic, 34
Relativization, 208
rep, 227
Replacement rules, 217
Representational function, 9, 286
Representational relevance: principle of, 101
Resultant: 101
Rewriting rules, 92-93
Root, 289-90
Rule E, 196
Rule E1, 196
Rule E2, 196
Rule S1, 202
Rule S2, 202
Rule S3, 202
Rule S4, 202
Rule S5, 203
Rule S6, 203
Rules: system of as semiotic property of language, 6-7
s, 195
S, 210
S-structure, 221
Saussure’s theory of Indo-European vocalism, 60-61
Secondary term: defined, 104, 198; as central to predicate frame, 122-25
Semantic field, 220
Semiotic method, 29
Semiotic reality: defined, 321; determined by principle of semiotic relevance, 322; and hierarchical stratification, 323; consequences of its disregard, 323-25
Semiotic relevance: 10-13; principle of, 11; and homonymy, 14
Semiotic strata: 2-6
Semiotics, 18; linguistics as part of, 17-19
Sentence constructions: typology of, 120-29
Sentence nests, 251-53
Sentence: as functional unit transmitting messages, 94; as represented by its predicate, 94-95
Sequencing: 6
Sign: analysis of, 3-4; principle of differentiation of signs, 5, 34; polyvalent, 14, 327; Saussure’s notion of, 16-17; unilateral vs. bilateral, 17
Sign-of relation, 3
Sign stratum, 3
Skinner’s behaviorism: and conceptual problems, 304
Sound type: 40
Speech flow: functional segmentation of vs. physical segmentation, 43; conditions on functional segmentation, 44-46
Speech sound variability: principle of, 33
Speech sounds: abstract vs. concrete, 40; logical independence of functional and physical classification of, 39, 42; perception of, 43, 48-50
Stative constructions, 128
Stem, 289-90
Stratification: hierarchical, 8-10
Stratificational linguistics, 327
Stress: primary and secondary function of, 68; culminative function of, 66, 69-70; types of, 78
Structure-changing rules, 217
Structure: 7-8
Subject-of relation, 179-80
Subject raising: in English and Tongan, 130-31
Subjects: nonomissibility of, 133-34; arguments against universality of, 121-22
Superabsolutive, 157
Superficial structure, 221
Superposer: 202
Superposition. See Functional superposition.
Superstructure of normal form. See Normal form
Suprafixes, 289-90
Surface structure, 263, 269
Suspension: principle of, 15
Syllable: defined, 73; central vs. noncentral, 68-69; structure of, 72-73; boundary, 73-74
Symbolic function, 287
Synchronic motivation: condition on, 85
Syntactic connections: between functional units vs. between syntagmatic units, 97-101
Syntactic neutralization, 136-39
Syntactic neutralization hypothesis: vs. unaccusative hypothesis, 188-89
Syntactic opposition primary term: secondary term: as central to syntactic organization of natural language, 122-25
Syntactic rules of applicative grammar: basic, 196-97; for expressions that belong to stratified types, 202-04
Syntagm: 94
Syntagmatic relations, 8
Syntagmatic units, 94-97
Syntaxeme: 109-10, 287
Synthetic languages, 292-94
Systemic grammar, 327
Tagmemics, 327
t, 195, 198
Terms: as functional units, 95-96; formal definition of, 103-04, 198; unmarked and marked, 139; modifiers of, 96, 112; subtypes of, 205-06
Tertiary term: defined, 104, 198; as intermediary between central and oblique terms, 125
Thought experiment: See Imaginary experiment
Three-place predicate: defined, 104, 198
Topic, 121
Transitive constructions: defined, 120
Transposition: in grammar. See Functional transposition
Transposition of phonological structure, principle of, 79
Transrelativization, 208
Two-level principle: in phonology, 42; in grammar, 97
Two-level theory of grammar, 94-101, 265-69
Two-level theory of phonology, 42
Two-level system of phonological concepts, 40
Two-place predicate: defined, 104, 198
Types: 194-96; superposition of, 201-06; stratified, 202
Unaccusative hypothesis: 187-89
Undergoer, 127
Unity of opposites, 53-55
Universal grammar, 254-55
Unspecified term, 226
Valence: generalized, 117; decrease and increase of, 118; relational change of, 118; quantitative, 119; relational, 119
Value: in linguistics and political economy, 53
Vocalism: law of minimal, 71
Vocative function, 99
Voice: defined, 119
Vowels: phonological vs. phonetic definition of, 74-76; primary vs. secondary functions of, 75-76; as consonants, 74-76
W, 208
Wk, 209
W elim, 224
Well-formed expressions: defined, 197
Word: phonological, 68; grammatical, defined, 285-86; Bloomfield’s definition of, 285-86; autonomous vs. nonautonomous, 286-87; as morphological crystallization of syntaxemes, 285; confusion of grammatical and phonological notions of, 285
Ø0, 224
∅˄, 228
𝛟, 213
𝚿, 213
≡, 194
= , 199, 223
▷, 207
◁, 217
⊨, 218
⊢, 218
⫤, 222
⊣,, 222