1. Abbey, David S. Now See Hear! Applying Communication to Teaching. Ontario, Canada: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1973. 74. pp. Illus.
A brief review of communication theory for educators, this book provides a basic model of communication, a practical introduction to kinesics and proxemics, and a comparative analysis of various instructional media. It discusses interactional, transactional, and verbal-immediacy analyses of interpersonal communication, and offers ideas for discussion and demonstrations in the classroom. An annotated list of suggested readings concludes each chapter.
2. Abecassis, Jeanine. “A propos de la communication non verbale chez l’enfant d’âge pré-scolaire: étude de certains aspects de la communication gestuelle.” Bulletin de Psychologie 26 (1972-73) : 506-512.
A report of a study of the evolution of certain affective gestures among three groups of children in a nursery school in Strasbourg. Gestures that ask for help, hugging gestures, and gestures of giving gifts were found to diminish, whereas hand shaking and giving help gestures increase. It includes a discussion of two theoretical points, namely, that the nonverbal communication system is completely interdependent, that is, changing one element influences the whole in contrast to, say, the structure of language, and that gestures have multiple meanings dependent on the situation or context. Written in French.
3. Abramovitch, Rona, and Daly, Eleanor M. “Children’s Use of Head Orientation and Eye Contact in Making Attributions of Affiliation.” Child Development 49 (1978) : 519-522.
Reports on two studies investigating children’s use of head orientation and eye contact as cues for judging affiliation. Forty preschool children, 18 about 3 ½ years old and 22 about four years, participated in the first study. Judgments that facing dyads liked each other while those not facing did not like each other were confirmed for both groups. In the second study 30 preschoolers about four years old and 32 grade-school children with a mean age of about six were asked to indicate their preference for a woman who was videotaped making eye contact or not with the viewer. The preschoolers showed no preference. The grade-school children preferred the eye contact.
4. Achilles, Charles M., and French, Russell L. Inside Classrooms: Studies in Verbal and Nonverbal Communication. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., 1977. 83 pp.
This is a report of the University of Tennessee studies of the observation system for teacher behavior IDER (Indirect/Direct-Encouraging/Restricting) based on the framework of N.A. Canders system of interaction analysis. The design procedures and rationale of the project using videotapes of grade-school classroom interaction are described, including an analysis of sex differences in student-teacher interaction, teacher behaviors toward children of different social classes, and toward delinquents. There are reports of comparisons of black and white perceptions of teacher behavior and discussion of the implications of the research for education and recommendations for future directions.
5. Adams, Robert M., ed. “Human Ethology Abstracts III.” Man-Environment Systems 9 (1979) : 57-164.
This excellent annotated bibliography contains over 560 abstracts on various topics in human ethology such as social spacing, courtship, sex roles, child/adult and child/child interactions. There are a good number of entries specifically on facial expression, gaze, gesture, touch, and posture. A good supplement to the current bibliography, it is one of a series regularly published in Man-Environment Systems.
6. Adams, Robert M. “Nonverbal Social Signals and Clinical Processes.” In The Evolution of Human Social Behavior, edited by J.S. Lockard, pp. 239-256. New York: Elsevier, 1980.
This chapter provides an overview of some of the literature on the relevance of nonvocal behavior to the causes, assessment, and treatment of certain interpersonal problems requiring psychotherapy. The author also examines a specific problem area, assertiveness. The author points out that while clinical practitioners have traditionally been concerned with the verbal behavior of clients as the primary means of their assessment, there has been a growing emphasis on the overt nonverbal behavior of the client, not only for assessing problems, but for treating them.
7. Adams, Robert M.; Hammeke, Thomas A.; and DeHaven, Everett D. “Goal Gradient in Locomotor Behavior: Field Studies.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 46 (1978) : 675-678.
Three studies compared walking speeds of subjects approaching a location assumed to contain a reward with walking speeds of subjects who passed by the reward location. No evidence was found for acceleration of walking speeds in the rewarded groups.
8. Adams, Robert M., and Kirkevold, Barbara. “Looking, Smiling, Laughing, and Moving in Restaurants: Sex and Age Differences.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 3 (1978) : 117-121.
Three hundred and twenty-eight diners in three restaurants were observed for three minutes each and the frequencies of six behaviors recorded: looking and glancing away from the table and companions, smiling, laughing, gross movements, and standing. Males looked more than females, and females smiled and laughed more than males. Significant age differences were found for smiling, laughing, movement, and standing. Significant interactions were found in looking for sex by with or without a companion. Significant age by sex interactions were found for smiling, laughing, and standing.
9. Adler, Ron; Rosenfeld, Lawrence B.; and Towne, Neil. Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1980. 352 pp. Illus.
This is a college-level text which has, among others, chapters on self-disclosure, listening, and nonverbal communication. To enliven the text there are interesting photos, quotes, and anecdotes inserted throughout as illustrations. The book deals with broad categories in a conversational tone, with only occasional reference to specific researchers.
10. Aiello, John R. “Male and Female Visual Behavior as a Function of Distance and Duration of an Interviewer’s Direct Gaze: Equilibrium Theory Revisited.” Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University. 1972. 114 pp. (Order No. 73053-12)
Distance and duration of interviewer’s visual attention were manipulated in interviews with male and female subjects. Seven hypotheses concerning sex differences in looking behavior were tested and confirmed, including a linear increase in looking behaviors with increased distance for males and a curvilinear relationship between distance and looking for females, with more looking at the intermediate distance than at the closer or farther distance.
11. Aiello, John R. “A Further Look at Equilibrium Theory: Visual Interaction as a Function of Interpersonal Distance.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 1 (1977) : 122-140. Illus.
This paper presents a study that examined the relationship between visual interaction and interpersonal distance as it relates to an equilibrium theory of social interaction. Differential boundaries were found to exist for the effect of distance on five highly related male and female visual behaviors, exemplifying different overall equilibrium levels for the sexes. While males looked more as distance increased, females looked less after an intermediate distance of 6.5 feet. These data support a modified equilibrium model that posits that eye contact functions to regulate the comfort of an interaction and is also a response to the degree of interaction comfort; further, comfortable interaction distances promote eye contact and, more importantly, uncomfortable distances diminish it. Because women tend to be more oriented toward inclusive relationships, they are more comfortable at closer interaction distances and, hence, look more at these distances.
12. Aiello, John R., and Aiello, Tyra DeCarlo. “The Development of Personal Space: Proxemic Behavior of Children 6 through 16.” Human Ecology 2 (1974) : 177-189.
The participants in this study were 424 white American children from grades one, three, five, seven, nine, and 11 in same-sex dyads. Observations were made of the children’s interpersonal distance and body orientation (axis) while interacting. Results indicate that distance between interactants increased with age up to about seventh grade, at which time it stabilized at societal norms. There were no distinctive sex differences in distance or orientation in the earlier grades, but by early adolescence males stood further apart and at greater angles than females.
13. Aiello, John R., and Baum, Andrew, eds. Residential Crowding and Design. New York : Plenum Press, 1979. 252 pp.
Several teams of investigators have used multiple methodologies in their examination of physical density and the psychological experience of crowding. Going beyond studies which yield moderate correlational relationships between census tract density and various social and physical pathologies, this collection focuses on mediating factors as well as the consequences of crowding, particularly the mediating influences of architectural design. The buildings that we shape in turn shape us. Several papers in this volume are concerned with the relationship between architectural design and high-density residential settings, with studies that show the effects of crowding. The book contains 14 essays, including a chapter on the problems which accompany attempts to ameliorate negative effects of high-density living.
14. Aiello, John R., and Cooper, Ralph E. “Use of Personal Space as a Function of Social Affect.” American Psychological Association Proceedings 7 (1972) : 207-208.
Eighth-grade boys and girls were grouped into 40 same-sex dyads according to reciprocal positive or negative choices on a sociometric form. Interpersonal distance and angle of orientation were recorded in a naturalistic situation. Results indicated a significant relationship between affect and distance, with students who liked each other interacting at closer distances. There was a tendency for students who did not like each other to widen the axis of orientation over time.
15. Aiello, John R.; DeRisi, Donna T.; Epstein, Yakov M.; and Karlin, Robert A. “Crowding and the Role of Interpersonal Distance Preference.” Sociometry 40 (1977) : 271-282.
Thirty-two female undergraduates were stratified on the basis of far or close personal space preference. They then experienced either a crowded or uncrowded situation. Various physiological measures were taken. Subjects found to prefer far interpersonal distances were most physiologically stressed by crowding and displayed lower performance levels on creativity tasks.
16. Aiello, John R.; Epstein, Yakov M.; and Karlin, Robert A. “Effects of Crowding on Electrodermal Activity.” Sociological Symposium 14 (1975) : 42-57.
Arousal and adaptation during and after varying degrees of crowding were measured with skin conductance readings and their change over time. Two studies are reported. In experiment I groups of six same-sexed subjects were placed in both small and large rooms and skin conductance levels for each subject were recorded every 105 seconds. In experiment II the method and measure were the same except that only one person was placed in each of the two rooms. Results indicate that crowded subjects were more aroused, males and females did not differ in degree of arousal, and the presence of others in conjunction with the size of the room is the major contributor to the arousal effect.
17. Aiello, John R., and Jones, Stanley E. “Field Study of the Proxemic Behavior of Young School Children in Three Subcultural Groups.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 19 (1971) : 351-356.
Two hundred ten same-sex dyads of children aged 6-8 were selected from black, Puerto Rican, and white subcultures in New York City. The children were observed on their school playgrounds. Interaction distance and shoulder axis were recorded. Results showed middle-class white children to stand farther apart than lower-class Puerto Rican or black children. In the white culture males stood further apart than females. Black children faced each other less directly than did the white children. There was a difference across cultures between shoulder axis for males and females.
18. Aiello, John, and Thompson, Donna. “Personal Space, Crowding, and Spatial Behavior in a Cultural Context.” In Human Behavior and Environment, Volume 4: Culture and Environment, edited by I. Altman, J. Wohlwill, and A. Rapoport, pp. 107-171. New York: Plenum Press, 1980.
The authors explore the personal space phenomenon from several aspects. First, they talk about the construct in general, its definition, models, methodologies, and measures. Next, they examine cultural studies (both interactional and projective types) of personal space. A portion of the paper is devoted to crowding and culture. It is concluded with a discussion of environmental design.
19. Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter. “Attachment as Related to Mother-Infant Interaction.” In Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 9, edited by J.S. Rosenblatt, R.A. Hinde, C. Beer, and M.C. Busnel, pp. 1-51. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Data from a longitudinal study done in 1963 of 26 mother-infant pairs are discussed in relation to individual differences and the effect of the mother on infant attachment formation. Mothers’ interaction behaviors were stable during the first year whereas infant behaviors were unpredictable during the first three months. Infants with deviant behavior (anxious, avoidant) at the end of the one-year study had mothers with deviant behavioral patterns; infants who were normally attached had mothers who were appropriately sensitive. The author concludes that the mother’s behavior has more influence on the mother-infant interaction than the infant’s behavior.
20. Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter; Blehar, Mary C.; Waters, Everett; and Wall, Sally. Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978. 391 pp. Illus.
This book is a detailed and highly interesting presentation of information about the attachment of infants to their mothers. Manifestations of attachment behavior of one-year-olds in the laboratory (unfamiliar or strange) situation are compared with manifestations of attachment observed at home. Origins and development of the behaviors, individual and national differences, and ethological-evolutionary theory of attachment behavior are key topics covered.
21. Akeret, Robert U. Photoanalysis. New York: Pocket Books, 1973. 311 pp. Illus.
A popularized book from the publishers of the 1970 Body Language on how to interpret the hidden psychological meaning of personal and public photographs. Hundreds of photos are reproduced here and accompanied by the author’s interpretations.
22. Alcock, John. “The Evolution of Behavior.” In Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, by J. Alcock, pp. 360-394. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1979. Illus.
By comparing the behavior of closely related species it is possible to trace the “likely” evolutionary history of an unusual behavior pattern. Employing the comparative method, one can explain the evolutionary history of complex communication signals in some insect species. For example, one can trace the history of honeybee communication. Diversity of communication signals may stem from variation in the effectiveness of signals in different sensory channels to carry a particular kind of message from sender to receiver.
23. Allgeier, A.R., and Byrne, Donn. “Attraction Toward the Opposite Sex as a Determinant of Physical Proximity.” Journal of Social Psychology 90 (1973) : 213-219.
This study of ten male and ten female undergraduates showed a significant relationship between attitude similarity and chosen seating distance for both sexes. Analysis of variance showed that subjects who sat closer to the confederate had lower self-reported ratings of anxiety, hostility, and depression.
24. Alloway, Thomas; Krames, Lester; and Pliner, Patricia, eds. Communication and Affect: A Comparative Approach. New York: Academic Press, 1972. 155 pp. Illus.
The papers in this volume were originally delivered at the first Symposium on Communication and Affect at the University of Toronto. Included is “The Language of Love” by Harry F. Harlow and Margaret K. Harlow which deals with the communication channels and behaviors involved in the development of affection between mother and infant rhesus monkeys, the role of play in development, and the learning of sex-differentiating behaviors. Jacob L. Gewirtz, in “Attachment and Dependence: Some Strategies and Tactics in the Selection and Use of Indices for Those Concepts,” discusses the great variety of behavioral indexes used to operationalize attachment and dependence, the assumptions that underlie their use, and related strategic considerations. Edward S. Klima and Ursula Bellugi discuss the use of sign language with chimpanzees and the acquisition of sign language by a deaf child as compared to the acquisition of spoken language in “The Signs of Language in Child and Chimpanzee.” J.P. Scott and V.J. DeGhett have contributed “Development of Affect in Dogs and Rodents.”
25. Als, Heidelise. “The Newborn Communicates.” Journal of Communication 27 (1977) : 66-73. Illus.
Thirty-one pairs of primaparous mothers and their newborns were observed during their first encounter after birth and once on the second and third days. The author postulates a three-layered communication system. The first level is state control communication during which the newborn makes its needs known for state adjustment; the second level is affectionate communication, during which newborn alertness is a signal of readiness for eye contact, visual following, yawning, vocalizations, and so on that elicit talking, kissing, nodding, and smiling from the mother. The third level is cognitive communication and readiness for input from the mother, which can only occur during the calm, alert state of the infant.
26. Altman, Irwin. The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, Crowding. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1975. 256 pp. Illus.
This book is an analysis of the concepts of privacy, personal space, territory, and crowding in humans. After an introduction, the author examines privacy in terms of its definitions, properties, mechanisms, and functions. The author then examines personal space—its nature, theoretical approaches toward it, methods for its study, compensatory aspects of it, and the nature of its intrusion. Conceptual issues and relevant research related to territorial behavior are examined next. Finally, crowding is discussed with regard to its meaning, methods of research, theory, and effect. Implications of this discussion for environmental design are also noted.
27. Altman, Irwin. “Research on Environment and Behavior: A Personal Statement of Strategy.” In Perspectives on Environment and Behavior, edited by D. Stokols, pp. 303-323. New York: Plenum Press, 1977.
The author argues that although there is a great deal of research on environment and behavior, not enough energy has been spent studying social units such as couples, teams, and families. He then discusses several aspects of a research strategy for social-unit analysis, including a focus on several levels and patterns of behavior and the systemlike and dynamic qualities of social units.
28. Altman, Irwin, and Vinsel, Anne. “Personal Space: An Analysis of E.T. Hall’s Proxemics Framework.” In Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, Volume 2, edited by I. Altman and J. Wohlwill, pp. 181-254. New York: Plenum Press, 1977.
The authors discuss the nature of E.T. Hall’s proxemic schema and its cross-cultural variation. They also provide an extensive review of research in proxemics. They survey research to date in five areas: effects of spatial intrusion, interpersonal liking, attraction, similarity or dissimilarity, individual variations in distance patterns, distance as related to other behaviors, and culture and distance. Literature in the field is integrated into Hall’s schema and is seen as validating it in most areas. Finally, the authors stress new directions for research.
29. Altman, Irwin, and Wohlwill, Joachim, eds. Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research vol. 2. New York: Plenum Press, 1977, Illus.
This anthology explores the relationship between human behavior and the physical environment. Topics include research methodologies, a review of professional media, environmental stress, applied behavior analysis, personal space, methodological issues, and environmental planning. Authors addressing these problems include R. Golledge, D. Appleyard, R. Lazaraus, J. Cohen, J. Cone, S. Hayes, I. Altman, A. Vinsel, S. Klausner, and S. Mann.
30. Altman, Irwin, and Wohlwill, Joachim, eds. Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research. Vol. Ill, Children and the Environment. New York: Plenum Press, 1978. 300 pp. Illus.
This anthology is a study of children as they interact with their environment. In Chapter 1 Yi-fu Tuan examines children and the natural environment. The child’s home environment is studied in Chapter 2 by Ross Parke. Robin Moore and Donald Young explore the child outdoors from the viewpoint of social ecology in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 by Paul Gump deals with the school environment. Maxine Wolf discusses children and privacy in the next chapter. The last two chapters examine the child’s cognitive structuring of geographic space and the child’s ability to be an environmental planner.
31. Altman, Irwin; Wohlwill, Joachim; and Rapoport, A., eds. Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, Vol. IV, Culture and Environment. New York: Plenum Press, 1980. Illus.
In this volume John Aiello and Donna Thompson discuss personal space from a cultural perspective; John Bennett examines human ecology and behavior; and John Berry writes on “Cultural Ecology and Individual Behavior.” Richard Brislin examines cross-cultural research methods and strategies, and Sidney Brower writes on territoriality in urban context. Environmental design is discussed in cultural context by Amos Rapoport; Miles Richardson notes the “Cultural Change and Urban Form”; Ignacy Sachs has an article in this anthology entitled “Culture, Ecology and Development”; Gilbert White and John Sorenson discuss cross-cultural differences in response to natural hazards in a final chapter. (From prepublication information.)
32. Anandam, Kamala, and Highberger, Ruth. “Child Compliance and Congruity Between Verbal and Nonverbal Maternal Communication—A Methodological Note.” Family Process 11 (1972) : 219-226.
Six mother-preschool-son dyads were videotaped during a play activity. The mothers were instructed to prohibit the child from playing with certain toys available in the room. The sessions were rated independently for positive and negative maternal verbal and nonverbal communication and child compliance. The children’s compliant behavior was more associated with congruent, positive maternal verbal and nonverbal communication, although the sample was too limited for conclusive results. The authors discuss the value of videotapes for such research.
33. Andersen, Peter A., and Leibowitz, Kenneth. “The Development and Nature of the Construct Touch Avoidance.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 3 (1978) : 89-106.
Development of two touch-avoidance measures via factor analysis are reported. Touch avoidance is a nonverbal communication predisposition that consists of two dimensions, same-sex touch avoidance and opposite-sex touch avoidance. The results are replicated across two distinct samples with consistent reliability of measurement. Touch avoidance is then related to communication apprehension, self-disclosure, self-esteem, and a series of cultural role variables. The cultural role variables seem to have the greatest relationship with the two measures of touch avoidance. A program for future research on touch avoidance is also discussed.
34. Anderson, David R. “Eye Contact, Topic Intimacy, and Equilibrium Theory.” Journal of Social Psychology 100 (1976) : 313-314.
Thirty-six same-sex dyads discussed topics rated low, medium, or high in intimacy. There was no significant effect for topic intimacy, but eye contact tended to be higher with medium-intimacy topics.
35. Angelini, Diane J. “Nonverbal Communication in Labor.” American Journal of Nursing 78 (1978) : 1221-1222. Illus.
Facial expression, eye, and body movements of the pregnant woman in labor are discussed in relation to the progression of the labor and the need for the attending nurse to be sensitive to nonverbal cues.
36. Angenot, Marc. “Les traites de l’eloquence du corps.” Semiotica 8 (1973) : 60-82.
The author describes works from 17th- and 18th-century France, elaborating a theory of natural and formalized gesture and a typology of gestural practice.
37. Apple, Marianne M. “Kinesic Training for Blind Persons: A Vital Means of Communication.” The New Outlook for the Blind 66 (1972) : 201-208.
Blind persons may be hindered in developing interpersonal relationships by their use of a nonverbal communication system differing from that of sighted individuals. The author reviews some nonverbal communication literature concerning kinesics, emotional development and the arts, and concludes with a list of facial expressions and gestures to be taught to the blind individual.
38. Archer, Dane, and Akert, Robin M. “Words and Everything Else: Verbal and Non-verbal Cues in Social Interpretation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (1977) : 443-449.
In a decoding study of how verbal (transcript) and nonverbal (full-channel) messages are interpreted, two groups of undergraduates were given two versions of the Social Interpretations Task (SIT). The SIT consists of a 30-minute videotape of 20 natural sequences of behavior showing one or more people in unposed situations (for example, two women playing with a seven-month-old baby), and a multiplechoice questionnaire about the people in each scene or their relationship (for example which woman is the baby’s mother). The verbal transcript version was given to 76 subjects and the verbal-plus-nonverbal version to 370 subjects. Among the results it was found that full-channel subjects were significantly more accurate than transcript subjects.
39. Arend, Susan, and Higgins, Joseph R. “A Strategy for the Classification, Subjective Analysis, and Observation of Human Movement.” Journal of Human Movement Studies 2 (1976) : 36-52.
This strategy involves three phases: preobservation (investigating the environment, movement, and essential features of the performer), observation (systematic approaches to viewing and recording the movement), and postobservation (evaluating the efficiency of the movement, environmental influences, and giving feedback to the performer). The strategy is directed toward teachers, students, and researchers and attempts to integrate current knowledge in the field of human movement. Detailed and abbreviated worksheets are provided for the observer.
40. Arensberg, Conrad M. “Introduction.” In Interaction and Social Structure, edited by O. Collins and J. Collins, pp. 9-20. The Hague: Mouton, 1973.
Interaction theory asserts the indispensability for the human sciences of the systematic observation of interpersonal behaviors as an integral part of social sciences: interaction theory seeks new ways to order and make sense of the immense data accumulated by researchers. This theory begins with an observation of interpersonal events and employs a method which dates back to 1940. In his introduction, Arensberg traces briefly the application of this theory and method and outlines some of the advantages and complications of its usage. He concludes by judging the Collins’ paradigm as both new and restated.
41. Argyle, Michael. “Non-Verbal Communication in Human Social Interaction.” In Non-Verbal Communication, edited by R. Hinde, pp. 243-269. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Illus.
A general survey of the field of nonverbal communication. The first part has to do with various research methods in the field. Next, the author talks about specific forms of nonverbal behavior: body contact, proximity, orientation, appearance, posture, head nods, facial expression, gestures, looking, and paralanguage. He notes the function of nonverbal behavior in the social setting and its role in social interaction. Notably, nonverbal behavior can influence attitudes, perceptions, emotions, and interaction; and setting can influence nonverbal behavior as can individual differences. Argyle concludes by surveying various theoretical explanations of nonverbal behavior.
42. Argyle, Michael, ed. Social Encounters: Readings in Social Interaction. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1973. 416 pp. Illus.
This book is an anthology of readings in social psychology. Seven of the 28 readings in the book deal directly with nonverbal behavior. Watson and Graves’ study of proxemic differences between Arabs and Americans is included in this compilation. Adam Kendon has an article discussing the functions of gaze in interaction. Ray Birdwhistell has put in a short summary of his approach to kinesics. Albert Mehrabian’s study of one’s ability to infer communicator attitudes from posture, orientation, and distance is included. P. Ekman and W.V. Friesen have an article on nonverbal deception and leakage. The reciprocity of approving nonverbal behavior (smiles and head nods) is studied by H. Rosenfeld, and Michael Argyle and Janet Dean’s examination of the interrelations among eye contact, distance, and affiliation is included.
43. Argyle, Michael. Bodily Communication. New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1975. 403 pp. Illus.
This book is a discussion of nonverbal behavior from three aspects. In Part One the author discusses the biological-cultural backgrounds of nonverbal behavior in humans and animals. In Part Two Argyle enumerates the different uses of bodily communication in emotion, expression, attitude formation, information about personality, speech, ritual, ceremony, and politics. In Part Three he examines the various types of bodily signals including the face, gaze, gesture, posture, touch, spatial behavior, clothes, physique, and vocalizations.
44. Argyle, Michael, and Cook, Mark. Gaze and Mutual Gaze. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. 210 pp. Illus.
The purpose of this book is to examine to date the research on gaze to “ . . . see how far it adds up to a coherent picture of the role of gaze in human social behavior.” To accomplish this task, the authors examine gaze behavior from several vantages. They explore the biological-cultural basis of gaze, the measurement of gaze, the reaction of gaze to interpersonal attitudes and emotions, the perception and interpretation of gaze, the role of gaze in the sequence of interaction, individual differences in gaze, and the role of gaze in visibility in social interaction.
45. Argyle, Michael, and Graham, Jean Ann. “The Central Europe Experiment: Looking at Persons and Looking at Objects.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 1 (1976) : 6-16.
Gaze at objects, another person, and background was measured for 15 dyads which constituted five different experimental groups in which task and situational factors were varied. The findings were that background stimuli had an unreliable effect on gaze; a very simple object relevant to the subject’s task attracted a great deal of gaze and greatly reduced gaze at the other person. This effect was even stronger with a complex relevant object, where visual attention was almost completely transferred from the other person to the object. There was evidence of forces to avoid too much gaze at the other person.
46. Argyle, Michael; Lefebvre, Luc; and Cook, Mark. “The Meaning of Five Patterns of Gaze.” European Journal of Social Psychology 4 (1974) : 125-136.
Forty subjects conversed with confederates using five gaze conditions (continuous, looking while talking, looking while listening, normal gaze, and nearly zero gaze). Conversations were role played as either first meetings with a stranger or an interview situation with the confederate playing the ingratiating interviewee. Subjects then completed rating scales of the confederate’s personality. High-gaze conditions were related to positive ratings in general and potency and self-confidence in particular. The ingratiation condition was not related to personality ratings. The meanings and sex differences in gaze patterns are reviewed in more detail.
47. Aronow, Edward; Reznikoff, Marvin; and Tryon, Warren W. “The Interpersonal Distance of Process and Reactive Schizophrenia.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 43 (1975) : 94.
Four distance measures showed no significant difference between 61 process and 43 reactive schizophrenics and 30 normal males.
48. Asante, Molefi Kete; Newmark, Eileen; and Black, Cecil A., eds. Handbook of Intercultural Communication. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1979. 479 pp.
This wide-ranging handbook covers a variety of theoretical approaches and practical applications in intercultural communication. In “Theoretical Dimensions for Intercultural Communication” William S. Howell discusses an interactive dyadic model of interpersonal communication integrating verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Jerry L. Burk and Janet G. Lukens describe a taxonomy of nonverbal behaviors that impede intercultural relations in their article on cognitive anthropology and ethnomethodology. In an article entitled “Integrating Etic and Emic Approaches in the Study of Intercultural Communication,” Stanley E. Jones reviews research on proxemic behavior and argues that an “emic” analysis of contextual factors should precede an “etic” or comparative analysis. In “Nonverbal Behavior: An Intercultural Approach,” Sheila J. Ramsey provides a review of research on nonverbal dimensions and cites the need for an analysis of contexts. V. Lynn Tyler, Peggy Hall, and James S. Taylor have contributed an article in which they discuss sources, methods, and strategies for data acquisition in intercultural communication, as well as methods of validation. Robert Shuter discusses still photography as a research tool in Chapter 15. In “Black-White Communication: An Assessment of Research” Dorothy L. Pennington discusses nonverbal differences found in the literature and the differences between existential and experimental methodologies. And in “Counseling Clients from Other Cultures: Two Training Designs” Paul Pedersen describes two experiences for counselor training using videotaped feedback.
49. Ashcraft, Norman, and Scheflen, Albert E. People Space: The Making and Breaking of Human Boundaries. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Double-day, 1976. 185 pp.
The first part of this book explores how people use space in various contexts and at various points of interaction and how this use is repeated and replicated at different levels from conversational settings, to the spatial layouts of rooms, to entire cities. With many references and descriptions of gaze and proxemic behaviors from different cultures, the authors elucidate the meaning of territory and the related concepts of privacy, intrusion, defense, constraints, and crowding. The second part focuses on the repercussions of these elements within human problems such as poverty, scarcity of resources, and violence.
50. Ashear, Victor, and Snortum, John R. “Eye Contact in Children as a Function of Age, Sex, Social, and Intellective Variables.” Developmental Psychology 7 (1971): 479.
The authors examined developmental changes and sex differences in relation to eye contact and eye pattern communication in 90 preschool and school-age children. Different patterns of eye communication based on the age and sex of the child were found. For example, females were found to make significantly more eye contact than males when speaking.
51. Athanasiou, Robert, and Yoshioka, Gary A. “The Spatial Character of Friendship Formation.” Environment and Behavior 5 (1973) : 43-65. Illus.
The authors collected the data at a housing project which contained 427 dwelling units of varying size and arrangement. They interviewed women residents about their friendship patterns, activity patterns, life styles, previous residence site development preference, and children’s activities. Their results showed that propinquity plays a part in the formation and maintenance of friendships among women who may have little in common.
52. Ayers, Harold J. “Observers’ Judgments of Audience Members’ Attitudes.” Western Speech 39 (1975) : 40-50.
A three-minute videotape was made of each of four pretested audiences consisting of six men and women with high ego involvement in the program presented to them and six women and men with low ego involvement in the program. Sixty-two college students were shown the audience videotapes and asked to complete a semantic differential-type scale for each audience member. They were also asked to rate each audience member’s ego involvement on a Likert-type scale. Following the assessment task each observer indicated his or her own attitude toward the subject of the program. The results indicated that female audience members’ attitudes were more accurately assessed than male audience attitudes. Highly ego-involved audience members were more accurately assessed than low ego-involved members. No relationship was found between the observers’ self-perceived social desirability or their attitudes toward the program and their judgments of the audience members’ attitudes.
53. Babcock, Barbara A. “The Semiotics of Subordination.” Semiotica 24 (1978) : 149-156.
A book review and description of Erving Goffman’s Gender Advertisements.
54. Badler, Norman I., and Smoliar, Stephen W. “Digital Representations of Human Movement.” Computing Surveys 2 (1979) : 19-38. Illus.
There are many different approaches to the representation within a digital computer of information descriptive of human body movement. In order to extract some primitive movement concepts which can be used to animate a realistic human body on a graphics display, the authors examine one particular notation system, Labanotation. This notation system has led to the design of a “machine language,” and programs in this language can be interpreted by a simulator to produce an animated display of human movement.
55. Bailey, Kent G.; Hartnett, John J.; and Gibson, Frank W. Jr. “Implied Threat and the Territorial Factor in Personal Space.” Psychological Reports 30 (1972) : 263-270.
Forty male and 40 female undergraduates served as experimental subjects and took an anxiety measure and a heterosexuality scale. In some cases a male or female confederate walked toward the subject until the subject felt uncomfortable. In other instances the subject walked toward the confederate until he or she (the subject) felt uncomfortable. Subjects tended to keep greater distance from the male confederate. Males approached by a female confederate allowed the closest approach. Amount of anxiety seemed to influence the distance kept by females and the heterosexuality score seemed related to male distance patterns.
56. Bailey, Kent G.; Hartnett, John J.; and Glover, Hilda W. “Modeling and Personal Space Behavior in Children.” Journal of Psychology 85 (1973) : 143-150.
Fifth and sixth graders from a school in a southern city were assigned to the Model Far (18 males, 18 females). Model Close (18 males, 18 females), or the No Model (15 males, 15 females) condition. The model was a popular male peer who approached or was approached by a female adult, either at a close or far distance. Results show a strong tendency to model, with subjects following the spatial behavior of the peer. Both modeling conditions tended to attenuate the sex differences, girls keeping greater distance than boys, found in the control group.
57. Baker, Charlotte. “Regulators and Turn-Taking in American Sign Language Discourse.” In On the Other Hand: New Perspectives on American Sign Language, edited by L.A. Friedman, pp. 215-236. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
Two same-sex dyads conversing in American Sign Language were noted to use hand rest positions as regulators. Males and persons posing questions tended to rest hands at or above waist level, while females tended to use rest positions at or below the waist. Touching or quick gestural movements were used to obtain requisite eye contact for the initiation of conversation. As with normals, a return to eye contact during sign conversation served to check the other participant’s decoding, signal conversation boundaries, and the termination of encoding. In contrast to normals, deaf individuals participated in longer periods of mutual gaze and more frequent facial activity. The author suggests introducing these differences in nonverbal communication when teaching sign language to hearing individuals.
58. Baldwin, Lori A.; Duttro, M. Kathleen; and Telek, Geza, eds. Films: The Visualization of Anthropology 1980. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Audiovisual Services, 1980. 164 pp.
This catalog is a descriptive listing of 16 mm films from the collection of Audiovisual Services at the Pennsylvania State University. Films are listed with descriptions of their contents according to the subdisciplines of anthropology (cultural, archaeology, and so on.)
59. Ball, Donald W. Microecology: Social Situations and Intimate Space. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973.
60. Ball, Howard Guy. “Educable Mentally Retarded Students’ Perceptions of Teachers’ Nonverbal Behavior.” Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University. 1972. 214 pp. (Order No. 73-1930)
Seven categories of Galloway’s Continuum of Teachers’ Non-Verbal Behaviors were presented on videotape by two white and two black female teacher-actors and viewed by 84 educable mentally junior high school students. Subjects successfully differentiated the eight categories, with students of each race rating teacher-actors of their own race higher.
61. Bär, Eugen. Semiotic Approaches to Psychotherapy. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Publications, 1975. 177 pp.
The author describes the behavior theories of J. Lacan (with emphasis on his notion of the unconscious), C.G. Jung (emphasis on individuation), H. Shands, J. Ruesch, and A.E. Scheflen, categorizing their approaches in terms of connotative or denotative semiotic systems.
62. Barakat, R.A. The Cistercian Sign Language: A Study in Non-Verbal Communication. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Cistercian Publications, 1975. 220 pp. Illus.
This dictionary of the Cistercian Sign Language provides an illustrated list of signs, examines the historical record, and contributes to the basic study of gestures, particularly technical gestures. The author, in addition to tracing a brief history of the use of gesture in speech, classifies Cistercian sign language into five groups: pantomimic signs, pure signs, qualitative signs, feature signs, and speech signs. The alphabet and syntax of the sign language, and an authorized list of signs with accompanying photographs are presented.
63. Barakat, Robert A. “Arabic Gestures.” Journal of Popular Culture 7 (1973) : 749-787. Illus.
In order to register reactions to events and peoples, or to communicate silently, Arabs extensively rely on a vast variety of gestures and body movements. Although the data available on autistic, culture-induced, and technical gestures remains meager, the data on semiotic gestures offers cautious but rich generalizations. The article concludes with a catalog of 247 Arabic gestures and an explanation of their usage.
64. Barakat, Robert A. “On Ambiguity in the Cistercian Sign Language.” Sign Language Studies 8 (1975) : 275-289.
This article describes the sign language used in Cistercian monasteries for about a thousand years. The language has taken on some characteristics of natural languages but, because of its ambiguity, can be frustrating.
65. Barash, David P. “Human Ethology: Personal Space Reiterated.” Environment and Behavior 5 (1973) : 67-72.
Among many animals, personal space varies with internal, physiological conditions, but it is likely there are less important influences on personal space among humans. Rather, humans develop an expectation of personal space based upon assessment of the per capita space available which enables them to avoid discomfort and/or uneasiness; that is, unlike animals they utilize cognitive capacities which mediate personal space patterns.
66. Barefoot, John C.; Hoople, Howard; and McClay, David. “Avoidance of an Act which Would Violate Personal Space.” Psychonomic Science 28 (1972) : 205-206.
This is a study of 508 male users of a water fountain in a public building. A female or male confederate was seated at one of three distances from a water fountain. Subjects drank less often when the confederate was seated nearest to the fountain, supporting the previous research on spatial invasions.
67. Barker, Roger G. Habitats, Environments, and Human Behavior. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, 1978. 327 pp.
This book is the product of work at the Midwest Psychological Field Station which was established to study the everyday behavior and psychological situations of the children of Midwest towns. Part one of the work presents the fundamental issues of ecological psychology and a treatment of the problems of ecobehavioral science. Part two addresses methodological, analytical, and conceptual problems of research in ecological psychology and presents some findings. The studies demonstrate the values of field-station research with its phenomena-centered data. The studies presented in Part three deal with “behavior settings,” procedures for measuring environmental extent and variety, and methods of measuring dynamic properties of behavior settings.
68. Barnes, Susan Vanden Hoek. “The Use of Sign Language as Technique for Language Acquisition in Autistic Children.” Ph.D. dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology. 1973. 95 pp. (Order No. 74-7093)
Sign language was used as a possible technique for treating autism. In this study the children were able to learn sign language, and their vocabularies increased, as did interaction with others in their environment.
69. Barnett, Kathryn E. “A Survey of the Current Utilization of Touch by Health Team Personnel with Hospitalized Patients.” International Journal of Nursing Studies 9 (1972) : 195-209.
After a brief review of the literature to support the therapeutic importance of touch to reduce psycho-physiological stress, the author describes a study of the occurrence of “nonnecessary” touch routinely utilized by health care personnel at two hospitals. Significant differences in the occurrence of touching were associated with the age range and race of both patients and personnel. Nurses and nursing students most utilized “nonnecessary” touch. Touching most often occurred in pediatric, obstetrical, and intensive care units and more often at the publicly funded than the privately funded hospitals. This latter finding was interpreted in terms of the socioeconomic level of the patients at the two hospitals. While patients’ extremities were the areas most often touched at both hospitals, the abdomen of the patients at the publicly funded hospital was also often touched. Notably, patients in serious or critical condition were touched less than half as often as patients in good or fair condition.
70. Barrel, James J. “Sexual Arousal in the Objectifying Attitude.” Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry 13 (1974) : 98-105.
Sexual arousal in the “objectness position” (that is, when the viewer sees the other as an object apart from the world) reveals two important dimensions: the dialectic of “concealment-revealment”; and the polar opposites of “aliveness/deadness.” While the former concerns the viewing of a potential to be expressed in the future, the latter deals with the body as either possessing sexual vitality or as a structure without function. Both these elements are necessary to the type of sexual arousal found within an objectifying attitude.
71. Bartee, Neale King. “The Development of a Theoretical Position on Conducting Using Principles of Body Movement As Explicated by Rudolf Laban.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 1977. 218 pp. (Order No. 78039-30)
Laban’s theory of movement was examined as a basis for improving the use of body movement in conducting.
72. Bartenieff, Irmgard. “Dance Therapy: A New Profession or a Rediscovery of an Ancient Role of the Dance?” Dance Scope Fall/Winter (1972/73) : 6-18.
Using brief descriptions of the work of dance therapy innovators, this article presents an historical overview of the field, starting with its roots in the modern dance revolution of the 1930s and 40s. Major themes discussed are the varying degree and type of cooperation between dance therapists and psychiatrists or psychologists, the relationship of Effort/Shape analysis to dance therapy, and the importance of dance as social interaction as well as individual therapy.
Dance is often regarded as such a separate category of movement experiences that it is excluded, unnecessarily, from the training and experience of other disciplines. The framework of Labananalysis does not maintain so sharp a separation. There are differences in intention, choice, and degree of body usage, but the components of all body movements are the same. Since dance provides combinations of the components at heightened intensities, any student of body movement for any reason can incorporate the observations from dance analyses.
Irmgard Bartenieff with Dori Lewis. Body Movement: Coping with the Environment. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1980. P. ix.
73. Bartenieff, Irmgard. Notes from a Course in Correctives. New York: Dance Notation Bureau Press, 1977. 37 pp. Illus.
Five lectures on postural correctives, described in Laban terms and accompanying exercises, are presented in this introductory course description. The fine opening chapter discusses muscular functioning from the perspective of biomechanics and neurophysiology as well as Laban’s work. Ensuing chapters include detailed information on the lower unit as regards initiation from center of weight, locomotion, change of level; the rotary element in movement; and the upper unit as regards counterbalance, exploration, orientation, manipulation, communication, and breathing.
74. Bartenieff, Irmgard with Lewis, Dori. Body Movement: Coping with the Environment. New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1980. 289 pp. Illus.
A beautifully written and illustrated book on “what the body can do, how it does it, how it relates to space, and how the quality of its movement affects function and communication—coping.” Based on the work of the inventor of the major dance notation, Rudolf Laban, and his student and colleague, Irmgard Bartenieff, the book is the primary source of “Labananalysis,” a quantitative and qualitative vocabulary, for describing human movement which includes the concepts and terms of Labanotation and Effort-Shape Analysis of movement. Following a history of Irmgard Bartenieffs work in dance, physical therapy, and dance therapy, there are chapters on the “body architecture,” carving shapes in space, “effort” dynamics or intensity aspects of movement, rhythm and phrasing, special aspects of patterning, and group interaction. There is a chapter on cross-cultural study of movement styles and a series of diverse applications of Labananalysis. The book concludes with an appendix on Bartenieff fundamentals of movement training. Examples from everyday life, the arts, and research are woven throughout this complex book.
75. Bass, Marian H., and Weinstein, Malcolm S. “Early Development of Interpersonal Distance in Children.” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 3 (1971) : 368-376.
This study attempts to identify the interpersonal distance behaviors of children and the influence of sex, age, degree of acquaintance, and setting upon such behaviors. An interviewer tested 113 children between the ages of five and nine using cut-out silhouettes which the child arranged in different room drawings. Results indicate that by age five children have acquired interpersonal distance preferences. Their proxemic choices reflect awareness of the effect of age, setting, degree of acquaintance, and specific interactions between these variables on interpersonal distance behaviors. No significant sex differences in the interpersonal space preferences were found.
76. Bassett, Ronald E., and Smythe, Mary-Jeanette. Communication and Instruction. New York: Harper & Row, 1979.
This text for student teachers contains a section on “nonverbal communication and teaching effectiveness” that discusses research such as that of J.A. Civikly, A. Love, and J. Roderick and T. Willet on research of teacher nonverbal behavior.
77. Batchelor, James P., and Goethals, George R. “Spatial Arrangements in Freely Formed Groups.” Sociometry 35 (1972) : 270-279.
Twenty groups of four high school students, each with four males and four females, were asked to make either collective or individual decisions on a problem. Members of the groups were free to place their chairs wherever they wanted. Distances between subjects’ chairs, number of other subjects each subject could see, and distance to the nearest person were calculated. Groups making collective decisions sat significantly closer together and had greater visual contact. All collective decision groups showed similar spatial arrangements. There was great variation among groups making individual decisions, but within groups individual distances tended to remain constant.
78. Bate, Brian R. “Effects of Various Social Reinforcers on Interviewee Eye Contact.” Ph.D. dissertation, Case Western Reserve University. 1971. 190 pp.
Experiments were designed to examine the effects of head nodding, vocal approval, and smiling on amount of eye contact during three periods in an interview.
79. Bates, John E. “The Effects of Children’s Nonverbal Behavior Upon Adults.” Child Development 47 (1976) : 1079-1088.
Sixty-four college student subjects were given the task of teaching four elementary mathematical principles in one-to-one interactions. Four 11 year old boys were trained to perform the same on objective tests and to display nonverbal cues of either “high positivity” (high amount of looking and smiling) or “low positivity” (looking 25 percent of time and no smiling) while interacting with college student subjects given the task of teaching them math principles. Results indicate that high level of child positivity produced higher levels of adult positivity and more favorable written evaluations of the child’s intellectual and social abilities than did the low level of positivity, despite identical objective performance by the confederates. Sequential analyses were performed and are reported in terms of adult-child reciprocity. The results are discussed in terms of real-life instructional situations.
80. Bateson, Gregory. Steps to an Ecology of Mind. San Francisco, California: Chandler Publishing Company, 1972. 541 pp. Illus.
This important collection brings together most of Bateson’s writings before 1971, dealing with anthropology, art, psychiatry, biology and evolution, systems theory, epistemology, and ecology. Included here are Bateson’s influential papers on the double bind and schizophrenia, logical types in communication, analogical and digital coding, animal communication, and play as communication. There is also a comprehensive list of the published books, reviews, articles and films by Bateson.
81. Bateson, P.P.G., and Hinde, R.A., eds. Growing Points in Ethology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. 548 pp.
Articles based on proceedings from the 1975 conference on ethology at the University of Cambridge at Madingley. The causes, evolution, biological function, and development of animal behavior patterns are addressed by essays in the first three sections of the book. The role and organization of specific behaviors as they relate to survival, adaptation, communication, and perception are examined closely. The final section focuses on links between human social relationships and ethology, providing a valuable perspective for viewing human behavior. Authors included in the volume are: R. Dawkins, D.J. McFarland, R.J. Andrew, J. Fentress, J. Hall-Craggs, T.H. Clutton-Brock, P.H. Harvey, P. Marler, B.C.R. Bertram, N.K. Humphrey, A. Manning, J.S. Rosenblatt, M.J.A. Simpson, P.P.G. Bateson, N.G.B. Jones, R.A. Hinde, J. Stevenson-Hinde, J. Dunn, and P.B. Medawar.
82. Battison, Robbin, and Jordan, I. King. “Cross-Cultural Communication with Foreign Signers: Fact and Fancy.” Sign Language Studies 10 (1976) : 53-68.
From personal interviews and observation, the authors conclude that signs vary considerably from country to country, and that receptive skills exceed expressive skills in cross-cultural signing.
83. Battle, Esther S., and Lacey, Beth. “A Context for Hyperactivity in Children, Over Time.” Child Development 43 (1972) : 757-773.
This study examined the motor activity over time of 31 females and 43 males drawn from the Fels Longitudinal Study. Observational data from recorded interactions with mother and with peers during childhood and interview data from adolescence and young adulthood, as well as standardized test data, were used. Examination of the data found higher hyperactivity scores for males only in the age sixto-ten period. IQ test performance and academic and verbal performance were not significantly related to hyperactivity. However, significant sex differences in the antecedents and correlates of hyperactivity were observed. For example, during the period from birth to age three disapproving and unaffectionate behavior in mothers is correlated with subsequent hyperactivity in males but not in females. From age three to six hyperactive children interacted more with peers than nonhyperactive children, but females did so in a positive way and males in a negative way. The authors argue against a general systemic view of motoric impulsivity and for the parental and environmental contributions to hyperactivity in children.
84. Bauer, Robert E.L. “Verbal and Motor Components of Leader Behavior in a Leaderless Group Discussion.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee. 1972. 183 pp. (Order No. 72-27, 447)
Verbal and motor behaviors of a videotaped six-person group were analyzed using an ethological approach. The author stresses the importance of the measurement process used in research and critiques earlier approaches to the study of leadership.
85. Baum, Andrew; Aiello, John R.; and Clesnick, Lisa E. “Crowding and Personal Control: Social Density and the Development of Learned Helplessness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978) : 1000-1011.
One hundred twenty residents who lived in either long-corridor (crowded, large group) or short-corridor (uncrowded, moderate group) dormitories participated in the study. Measures were taken following one, three, or seven weeks of residence. It was anticipated that the crowded dormitory residents would display increased helplessness over time. The residents completed surveys or played a Prisoner Dilemma game designed to assess competitiveness, cooperativeness, and withdrawal. Residents of long-corridor dorms were more competitive and less cooperative than short-corridor residents. Further, long-corridor residents showed a significant increase in withdrawal responses after seven weeks.
86. Baum, Andrew, and Epstein, Yakov, eds. Human Response to Crowding. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978. 418 pp.
As stated by the editors, this book is an attempt to “describe theoretical developments, examine research methods and consider evidence” related to human response to crowding. The book, divided into three sections, presents a series of papers by researchers well known for their contributions to study of crowding. In Section One data generated from crowding research during the period 1970-76 is reviewed, integrated, harmonized, interpreted, and placed into conceptual frames. Section Two reviews research results and fits them into some specific models of crowding and density-related stress. Section Three papers derive and empirically test hypotheses which spring from various theoretical approaches to crowding and the personal space construct.
87. Baum, Andrew, and Greenberg, Carl I. “Waiting for a Crowd: The Behavioral and Perceptual Effects of Anticipated Crowding.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) : 671-679.
Forty male and 40 female undergraduate subjects were told they were to be in an uncrowded or crowded room. After a subject remained alone in the room for two minutes, two confederates arrived and sat close to or far away from the subject. Five dependent variables were measured: position taken by the subject, amount of facial regard between subject and first confederate, subject’s evaluations of the confederates, subject’s reactions to the experimental room, and subject’s reported comfort in the setting. Those anticipating crowding chose more socially isolated seats, looked at the confederate less, reported more discomfort, liked both confederates less, and perceived the room differently from those not anticipating crowding.
88. Baum, Andrew, and Koman, Stuart. “Differential Response to Anticipated Crowding: Psychological Effects of Social and Spatial Density.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976) : 526-536.
Thirty-two male and 32 female undergraduates were told they would be in large or small crowded or uncrowded conditions. Half the subjects were told to expect a structured session. The subject was first alone in a room. At preset intervals two confederates entered the room. From observation the subject’s seat position, verbal behavior, and facial regard were noted. Subjects also filled out forms evaluating the room, their comfort, and the experimental session. Among the results it was found that subjects awaiting large-group unstructured sessions felt more crowded thanthose awaiting large-group structured sessions. In general, behavioral responses to anticipated high social density were mediated by expectation of social structure.
89. Baüml, Betty J., and Baiiml, Franz H. A Dictionary of Gestures. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow, 1975. 249 pp. Illus.
This dictionary primarily contains culturally transmitted gestures. It does not include sign language or occupationally specific gestures but does include gestures that have been widely assimilated. All descriptions of gestures in the collection come from verifiable sources, so that for a more specific or subtle idea of a given gesture one can refer to the original source in the book’s bibliography. The dictionary is organized alphabetically according to the body part(s) primarily involved in executing a gesture, with the significance(s) of different gestures alphabetically listed under each of these headings.
90. Baxter, James C., and Rozelle, Richard M. “Nonverbal Expression as a Function of Crowding during a Simulated Police-Citizen Encounter.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) : 40-54.
Twenty-nine adult men volunteered to participate in a simulated police interview. Two speech measures and several nonverbal indexes (eye behavior, head activity, protective and nonprotective hand and arm behavior, trunk rotation, and foot activity) revealed patterns significantly related to crowding. Implications of the results for interpersonal attribution processes were examined.
91. Bayes, Marjorie A. “Behavioral Cues of Interpersonal Warmth.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 39 (1972) : 333-339.
Eight male and eight female college students were videotaped responding to questions about their home town, family, school and job experience. Eighteen male and 18 female students made global judgments as to the warmth of each interviewee. Among the results it was found that frequency of smiling was the single best predictor of warmth.
92. Beach, David R., and Sokoloff, Mark J. “Spatially Dominated Nonverbal Communication of Children: A Methodological Study.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 38 (1974) : 1303-1310.
The study developed scales and procedures for assessing children’s nonverbal behavior, particularly distance, orientation, eye contact, and position variations. Fourteen middle-class children between four and five years of age were videotaped while engaged in free play. Five of the scales proved usable, with three assessed as having acceptable inter-rater reliability. Interesting results suggest that girls may maintain greater interpersonal distance than boys.
93. Beakel, Nancy G. “Parental Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Psychopathology.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. 1971. 95 pp. (Order No. 71-582)
94. Beattie, Geoffrey W. “Floor Apportionment and Gaze in Conversational Dyads.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 17 (1978) : 1-15.
The author discusses Adam Kendon’s findings on the functions of gaze in conversation, especially concerning its role in facilitating turn-taking. In the present study, portions of four videotaped interactions were analyzed to see whether extended gaze at the end of a speaking turn reduced the pause between turns. He found on the contrary that utterances ending with extended gaze had significantly longer pauses than those with no gaze. Utterances ending in no gaze were followed by significantly more immediate switches with no pause. The author concluded that there was no evidence for the role of gaze in facilitating speaker-switches. Kendon replies to this paper as well as to the following one by Rutter et al. on pp. 23-24 of the same volume.
95. Beattie, Geoffrey W. “Sequential Temporal Patterns of Speech and Gaze in Dialogue.” Semiotica 23 (1978) : 29-52.
An intensive analysis was made of the speech and gaze of five subjects filmed in supervision or seminar discussions. Speech samples of more than 30 seconds were selected at random, and cognitive cycles were identified with respect to speech units. The relationship between the cognitive cycles of speech and the macropatterns of gaze revealed a loosely coordinated system, with the pattern of gaze seeming to reflect the gross temporal structure of the pause/phonation patterns in speech. Gaze was organized with the plans underlying speech and with the speech flow itself in a coordinated system, with gaze found to be more frequent in fluent phases than in the hesitant phases of the cognitive cycles.
96. Bechtel, Robert. Enclosing Behavior. Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, 1977. Illus.
Concerned with the relation between behavior and architecture, this book includes a synthesis of the known materials in environmental psychology, notes applications, and stresses new approaches to design problems. It is designed as a reference book for environmental planners and thereby cites specific designs and follow-up studies to assist them.
97. Beck, Henry. “Ethological Considerations on the Problem of Political Order.” Political Anthropology, An International Quarterly 1 (1975) : 109-135. Illus.
An essay on the ethological concepts of fixed action patterns, markers and releasers, and their relation to the nature of social order. Using examples of human and primate threat displays “fear-grins,” spatial relationships, and aggression/flight patterns, he discusses the concepts of “spatiality,” mobility as intentionality, and temporality in higher animal behavior.
98. Beck, Henry. “Neuropsychological Servosystems, Consciousness, and the Problem of Embodiment.” Behavioral Science 21 (1976) : 139-160.
Important to this bibliography is an essay on how recent work on systems theory and in neurophysiology (especially that of K. Pribram) may provide a link between “the psychology of consciousness, the neurophysiology of movement, and the growing body of work on nonverbal communication.”
99. Beck, Steven J., and Ollendick, Thomas H. “Personal Space, Sex of the Experimenter, and Locus of Control in Normal and Delinquent Adolescents.” Psychological Reports 38 (1976) : 383-387.
The subjects were 56 male white adolescents, aged 13 to 17, 28 normal and 28 delinquent. The personal space (PS) measure was the distance at which the subject stopped the experimenter as he or she approached from each of four directions. Results indicated that: delinquents and normals were the same on the PS indexes; both groups needed more PS behind than in front; and both groups allowed females closer than males.
100. Becker, David George. “Proxemics and Recreational Spatial Behavior in Yellowstone National Park Campgrounds.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 1977. 180 pp. (Order No. 7803934)
A model of spatial behavior is constructed from factors such as territoriality, change of environment by campers, and socio-economic background of campers.
101. Becker, Franklin D. “Study of Spatial Markers.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26 (1973) : 439-455.
Observers in a large university library wanted to determine the effect of markers (signs of use or occupancy) on seating behavior at tables. In the first experiment the choice of seating and the duration one remained at a library table were less affected for marked tables than occupied tables. In a second study, using photographs and a questionnaire, no subject said they would sit at a marked location.
102. Beckwith, Leila. “Relationships between Infants’ Social Behavior and the Mothers’ Behavior.” Child Development 43 (1972) : 397-411.
During two visits of one hour each, 24 mothers were observed and scored for frequency and type of verbal and physical contacts with their adopted infants (age eight months to 11 months). Times the mother ignored approaches or crying of the infant, and her “permissiveness” and “restrictiveness” were also rated. Infants were observed and scored on frequencies of social behavior: ignoring, approaches, and responses to mother. The mothers also responded to the Parental Attitude Response Inventory and answered a questionnaire on the social experiences of their infants. The infants were rated on the Rheingold Social Responsiveness Scale. Intercorrelation of measures showed that mothers who showed strong tendency to make contact had infants who showed less self-stimulatory behavior and tended to ignore the mother more. If mothers were more interfering or ignoring, infants had less social play with mother and were more responsive to a stranger. Boys were significantly more responsive to a stranger on the Rheingold Scale than girls.
103. Beebe, Beatrice. “Micro-Timing in Mother-Infant Communication.” In Nonverbal Communication Today: Current Research, edited by M.R. Key. The Hague: Mouton, forthcoming. Illus.
A very clear and useful discussion of the method of microanalysis and of several case studies of mother-infant pairs. The author reviews recent findings on the early capabilities of the infant and on the split-second reactivity observed in maternal and infant behavior. The case studies deal with the spectrum of engagement/disengagement behaviors available to the infant in interaction, the relation of maternal microrhythms to infant engagement, and the synchronization of maternal and infant behaviors in coactive and noncoactive ways. The author concludes with a consideration of the importance of temporal factors in mother-infant communication.
104. Beebe, Beatrice, and Gerstman, Louis J. “The ‘Packaging’ of Maternal Stimulation in Relation to Infant Facial-Visual Engagement.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, in press. Illus.
Approximately two minutes of a mother-infant interaction involving rhythmic hand games were microanalyzed. Mother’s and infant’s behaviors were coded frame by frame using ordinal engagement scales, each point of which represented a specific combination of orientation, visual attention, and facial expressions. The mother’s hand movements varied according to five modes: three measures of rhythmic handswings on a horizontal plane (full-out, half-out, and short-out games), transitions, and hand pauses. Analysis of the way in which mother’s and infant’s level of engagement varied in relation to mother’s hand games showed that mother’s facial-visual engagement and rhythmic hand movements systematically covaried as a “package”; not all variations were functionally significant for the infant, however. The infant’s engagement did not significantly differ between full-out and half-out games, while mother’s engagement did. On the other hand, the difference between half-out games and transitions was significant for the infant, while mother’s facial-visual engagement remained constant. The significance of maternal rhythms for the infant is discussed.
105. Beebe, Beatrice, and Stern, Daniel N. “Engagement-Disengagement and Early Object Experiences.” In Communicative Structures and Psychic Structures, edited by N. Freedman and S. Grand, pp. 35-55. New York: Plenum Press, 1977. Illus.
The range of behaviors open to the infant to modulate or regulate social stimulation is discussed as an engagement-disengagement spectrum. Gradations on the spectrum were operationalized using five criteria: visual perception of the mother (foveal, peripheral, or none); head orientation in the horizontal plane (center vis-avis to beyond 90° from center); reactivity to the mother (micromomentary, inhibition of responsivity, or unrelated); direction of movement (approach, withdrawal, or neither); and facial expressiveness (positive, negative, or neutral). Using these criteria, the gradations of the spectrum are: “facing and looking,” “side looking,” “visual checking,” “dodging,” “inhibition of responsivity,” “fuss-cry,” and “turn to environment.” The middle range of the spectrum is illustrated by a discussion of one mother-infant interaction.
106. Beebe, Beatrice; Stern, Daniel; and Jaffe, Joseph. “The Kinesic Rhythm of Mother-Infant Interactions.” In Of Speech and Time: Temporal Speech Patterns in Interpersonal Contexts, edited by A.W. Siegman and S. Feldstein, pp. 23-24. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979.
The article describes an investigation of the temporal patterning of a kinesic interaction between mother and four month old infant through frame-by-frame film analysis. Coaction, or simultaneous behavior, was found to predominate, with the infant responding to the mother’s behavior in well below reaction time. The noncoactive kinesic episodes showed a rhythmic matching of action and pause that parallels the structure of adult conversation. Comparison with previous results on vocalization revealed the similar nature of vocal and kinesic interaction in infancy and crucial importance of timing in early mother-infant interaction.
107. Beebe, Steven A. “Eye Contact: A Nonverbal Determinant of Speaker Credibility.” The Speech Teacher 23 (1974) : 21-25.
o College students were exposed to a live public speaking situation in which only the amount of eye contact varied: 46 of them in condition one, no eye contact; 48 in condition two, moderate (50 percent) eye contact, and 42 in condition three, high (90 percent) eye contact. They rated the speaker on 15 semantic differential scales factoranalyzed to yield three factors related to speaker credibility: qualification, dynamism and honesty. The analysis of variance on the qualification factor showed that the speaker was perceived to be significantly more credible in the moderate and high eye contact condition than in the no eye contact condition. On the honesty factor, the speaker was perceived to be significantly more credible in the high eye contact condition than in the moderate or no eye contact conditions. There were no significant differences on the dynamism factor of speaker credibility.
108. Beebe, Steven Arnold. “Effects of Eye Contact, Posture, and Vocal Inflection Upon Comprehension and Credibility.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri. 1976. 162 pp. (Order No. 77048-87)
In this study a speaker delivered a speech while manipulating eye contact, posture and vocal inflection. Ratings of the speech videotapes suggest that specific eye contact patterns may enhance credibility and increase comprehension.
109. Beels, C. Christian. “Profile: Albert E. Scheflen.” The Kinesis Report: News and Views of Nonverbal Communication 2 (Fall 1979) : 1-4, 14-15. Illus.
An interview with one of the pioneers in kinesics research, Albert E. Scheflen, who died in the summer of 1980. Scheflen talks about his research philosophy, how his career evolved, and key concepts on his last book, Levels of Schizophrenia.
110. Beier, Ernst G., and Sternberg, Daniel P. “Subtle Cues Between Newlyweds.” Journal of Communication 27 (1977) : 92-97.
The authors rated measures of eye contact, touching (both self and other), open and closed body positions, and time talking in order to judge level of marital discord. Interesting correlations and differences in husband and wife behavior and feelings, as well as the subtle cues by which they communicate the quality of their marriage to one another are reported. For example, couples with greater discord sat farther apart, had less eye contact, and showed more self-touch as opposed to other touch, but they talked more.
111. Beier, Ernst G., and Valens, Evans G. People-Reading: How We Control Others, How They Control Us. New York: Stein and Day, 1975. 283 pp.
Drawing on experience accumulated from their psychotherapy practices, the authors use a communication analysis model to explore the unconscious manipulation of others, both verbal and nonverbal, in parent-child, work, and love relationships.
112. Bell, Paul; Fisher, Jeffrey; and Loomis, Ross. Environmental Psychology. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1978. Illus.
The authors begin with a discussion of the nature of environmental psychology and the research methods used to investigate it. Chapter two has to do with how one perceives and evaluates the environment. In the next chapter Bell et al. discuss theoretical approaches to environment-behavior relationships. In Chapters four, five, and six the effects of noise, temperature, air pollution, wind, personal space, and crowding are discussed. Next the authors discuss human environmental adaptation. Chapter eight deals with the city. The last two chapters relate to environmental design and conservation.
113. Bellack, A. S. “Behavioral Assessment of Social Skills.” In Research and Practice in Social Skills Training, edited by A.S. Bellack and M. Hersen. New York: Plenum Press, 1979. Illus.
114. Bellugi, Ursula, and Fischer, Susan. “A Comparison of Sign Language and Spoken Language.” Cognition: International Journal of Cognitive Psychology 1 (1972) : 173-200.
Three young adults, hearing children of deaf parents and completely “bilingual” in spoken English and American Sign Language (ASL), told three versions of the same story—in ASL, in spoken English, and simultaneously in both. Excluding pauses, the average number of spoken words per second was twice that of signs when they were performed alone and one-and-a-half times that of signs when performed simultaneously. An analysis of propositions in the stories revealed, however, that the length of time underlying propositions was relatively the same in both modes. The ways in which ASL compensates for the time limitation include the incorporation of location by varying the direction of movement to reflect the spatial layout of what is being discussed. With some verbs movement to or away from the body can mark case or voice. Information about number can be included by using one or two hands or by repetition, manner can be conveyed by varying the size of the movement or its tension, and information about size and shape can be incorporated into a sign by its size or place of performance high or low on the body. Postural shifts and facial expressions also serve grammatical functions in ASL. A shake of the head or frown can negate a sentence, shifting eye movement can mark off a direct quotation, and a question is sometimes marked by raising eyebrows, widening eyes, or by the final position of the hands. Lastly, bodily shifts in narrative can be used to reflect who is being talked about and shifting points of view.
115. Bendich, Stephen Zachary. “Sensory Awareness as Self-Discovery: An Exploratory Study.” Ph.D. dissertation, New York University. 1973. 471 pp. (Order No. 73-19, 902)
Nineteen university students completed a nine week course in the Selver sensory awareness technique to heighten kinesthetic sensitivity through nonverbal exercises. Certain hypotheses as to the effects of the course were supported on tests administered before and after it, particularly that subjects become more aware of their bodies and that their intellectual self-awareness was enhanced.
116. Benjamin, Gail R., and Creider, Chet A. “Social Distinctions in Non-Verbal Behavior.” Semiotica 14 (1975) : 52-60.
Videotapes of dyads in conversation were shown with only the face of one member visible. Twenty adults and 40 eight and nine year old boys watched 30 second segments of the videotaped conversations and then answered the following questions: “(1) Is this person talking to someone of the same or opposite sex? (2) Is this person talking to someone of the same or different age? (3) Is this person talking to an acquaintance or a non-acquaintance?” The viewing subjects were able to identify the sex and degree of acquaintance of the unseen interactors on the basis of the facial behaviors of the subject they did see. However, only the children guessed age difference incorrectly.
117. Bennett, Corwin. Spaces for People: Human Factors in Design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977. Illus.
This book is divided into four sections. In the first section the author explores the relation between interior space design and human factors. He attempts to define what specific human needs should be considered in design. Section two relates the way furnishings and space are adapted for human use. In section three the author examines the design of luminous, acoustic, and thermal environments for optimal human use. In section four the author discusses the role of research in design adapted to human needs. He stresses the need for creative problem solving and persuasive appeals to clients.
118. Benoist, Irving R., and Butcher, James N. “Nonverbal Cues to Sex-Role Attitudes.” Journal of Research in Personality 11 (1977) : 431-442.
The 62 undergraduates participating in this study were pretested for grouping into four categories (high-feminine males and females and low-feminine males and females) and then videotaped during a standardized interview. Peer-age judges checked which of 120 adjectives described each student on tape played without sound. Sex role stereotypic attitudes were evidenced in judgments, such as that women were more often seen as affable and unstable and men as dominant and detached. In addition, high-feminine women were seen as submissive, low-feminine women as dominant, and high-feminine men as impulsive, dominant, and socially uneasy.
119. Benson, Thomas W., and Frandsen, Kenneth D. “An Orientation to Nonverbal Communication.” In Modules in Speech Communication, edited by R.L. Applebaum and R.P. Hart, 38 pp. Chicago, Illinois: Science Research Associates, 1976. Illus.
This monograph begins with definitions of nonverbal communication and a section of the science of signs and semiology. There are brief but interesting discussions of some sign systems of nonverbal communication: appearance, voice, face and eyes, gesture, posture and movement, space and touch. The monograph ends with a “case study” of a political poster and exercises in nonverbal analysis.
120. Benthall, Jonathan, and Polhemus, Ted, eds. The Body As A Medium of Expression. New York: Dutton, 1975. 339 pp.
There are a number of important chapters on body movement in this volume, such as one on finger positions in medieval and ancient art and their symbolic meaning and one dealing with gestural sign language including a paper by Ray L. Birdwhistell. Of particular note is “The Syntaxes of Bodily Communication” by Michael Argyle. In this article, the author points out that there are a number of separate communication systems such as sign language, illustrations during speech, systems to communicate interpersonal attitudes, or systems to express emotions, which all use the same body parts, but which have different properties. For example, gestures of the hand can be used as speech illustrators, but they can also be used to represent interpersonal attitudes by touching or hitting, or they can be used as arbitrary signals as in deaf sign language. Many of those systems can be operating at the same time, thus making nonverbal communication quite complex. The author gives examples of practical applications of research findings that could solve some social and individual problems if we learn to use these systems better.
121. Bentz, Janet Mills. “Gender Displays in Portrait Photographs.” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, in press.
An examination of 1,296 portrait photographs of high school and university yearbooks showed that females smiled with a significantly greater frequency and expansiveness (broader smiles) than males and “head canted” more than males. The survey did not support a hypothesis that males would face the camera more directly than females.
122. Berge, Yvonne. Vivre son corps: Pour une pedagogie du mouvement. Paris: Seuil, 1975. 173 pp. Illus.
This book presents the purposes and particulars of movement pedagogy in a growth-oriented, balanced, and creative manner. Concentrating on creative movement classes with young children, it discusses the return to consciousness and activity of the five senses, of spatial and temporal awareness, and of the felt sense of self through movement, as well as the role of the teacher and teaching techniques. The author discusses relaxation, breath, gravity, developmental movement, the relation of central and peripheral musculature and body parts, binary and more complex rhythms, equilibrium, music spatial sense as it relates to the emotions, architecture and nature, choral movement and partaking in a group “organism.” While the entire book includes ideas for classroom projects and explorations, the final chapters on pedagogy discuss the physical and psychological self-development of the creative movement teacher in keeping with the issues raised by this book. Written in French.
123. Berger, Milton M., ed. Videotape Techniques in Psychiatric Training and Treatment, 2nd edition. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1978.
124. Bergman, Eugene. “Autonomous and Unique Features of American Sign Language.” American Annals of the Deaf 117 (1972) : 20-24.
Arguments for the linguistic autonomy of ASL are presented through brief analyses of three dimensionality, polarity, and tropes (representations of abstract concepts and relations by specific symbolic gestures), cognitive and conceptual functions of ASL, and parallels with Chinese ideograms. Observations are made on the unique potential of ASL as a tool for the study of communications and its implications about the nature of human language, psychology, and cognition.
125. Berkson, Gershon, and Becker, James D. “Expressions and Social Responsiveness of Blind Monkeys.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84 (1975) : 519-523.
Three experiments are reported here involving five sighted and five blind infant macaque monkeys. First, the time it took to identify a randomly placed cage of a sedated or unsedated mother and the percent of time in the proximity of mother by the blind or control infants was measured. Secondly, the preference for and time spent in contact with the sedated or unsedated mother or other female was determined for blind infants. And, finally, the frequency and percentage occurrence of five facial expressions in five categories of social interaction were recorded for four sighted macaques interacting with four blind monkeys in spontaneous activities. Sighted infants were more efficient than blind infants in contacting and maintaining maternal proximity, but blind infants improved in contacting vocalizing (that is, unsedated) mothers, while blind macaque infants showed a nonsignificant preference for mothers. The tendency for subjects to initiate and maintain contact confirmed the importance of tactual cues in establishing primate social affinity. Blind macaque infants showed fewer facial expressions, but, excepting threat faces, they were of normal form. Blind macaque infants did not show a marked decrease in the initiation of social interactions with sighted macaque infants.
126. Bernick, Niles; Altman, Fred; and Mintz, Daniel L. “Pupil Responses of Addicts in Treatment to Drug Culture Argot: II. Responses During Verbalization of Visually Printed Words.” Psychonomic Science 28 (1972) : 81-82.
Words pertaining to control, sex, and drug argot were visually presented to ten former addicts who were asked to verbalize each as it appeared. Stimulus categories did not elicit significantly different mean pupil responses; the authors hypothesize that there may be a correlation between pupil response and degree of commitment to addiction.
127. Bernstein, Barbara Elaine. “Body Language in the Classroom.” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 6 (1977) : 54.
Anecdotal observations that where the teacher stands and moves in the classroom can signal the teacher’s acceptance of a child’s anger and overt hostility.
128. Bernstein, Penny L. Theory and Methods in Dance-Movement Therapy. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1972. 208 pp. Illus.
In a call for a theoretical frame of reference for dance/movement therapy, the author proposes a developmental model. Adaptive and maladaptive modes of functioning in relation to nonverbal communication are discussed in 15 levels of developmental organization. Specific movement descriptions are given for each style of behavior, and dance/movement therapy techniques are outlined. Additional topics include regression, somatization of symbols, the training of a dance/movement therapist, and a comparison chart of Piaget, Gesell, and Labananalysis developmental schemes.
129. Bernstein, Penny L. “Pilot Study of the Use of Tension Flow System of Movement Notation in an Ongoing Study of Infants at Risk for Schizophrenic Disorders.” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 8 (1973) : 116-125.
Several hypotheses, including that schizophrenic mothers best relate to children in the oral rhythm stage, were tested in a small video research project using Judith Kestenberg’s tension flow rhythm analysis. Control and schizophrenic-diagnosed mothers were rated for infant/mother synchrony while bottle feeding and solid food feeding. Results suggested there were also some “at risk” infants in the control group.
130. Bernstein, Penny L. “Recapitulation of Ontogeny: A Theoretical Approach in Dance/Movement Therapy.” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 8 (1974) : 107-115.
The author presents an introduction to the theory of recapitulation of ontogeny and its relationship to dance/movement therapy. The basic rhythms of movement flow are discussed in relation to adaptive and maladaptive behavior. Some case material is presented.
131. Bernstein, Penny L. Theory and Methods in Dance-Movement Therapy: A Manual for Therapists, Students, and Educators. Second Edition. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1975. 225 pp. Illus.
The book, written in manual format, spans the field of dance-movement therapy. Theory, techniques, learning, effort/shape movement analysis, body image, touch, and cultural differences in relation to dance therapy are discussed. There are chapters on dance therapy training, case studies, and an appendix containing a developmental chart and several movement diagnostic scales.
132. Bernstein, Penny L., ed. Eight Theoretical Approaches in Dance Movement Therapy. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1979. 187 pp. Illus.
The editor has selected eight therapists to present their theoretical approaches to dance/movement therapy. Each discusses the conceptual basis, origins, and applications of her work. Included are the writings of Trudi Schoop, Mary Whitehouse, and Liljan Espenak, as well as the Gestalt, psychoanalytic, Marian Chace, psychodynamic, and transpersonal methods.
133. Bernstein, Penny, and Cafarelli, Enzo. “An Electromyographical Validation of the Effort System of Notation.” American Dance Therapy Association Monograph No. 2 (1972) : 78-94. Illus.
In order to test for distinct muscle response patterns in the performance of the Eight Basic Actions of Laban’s movement analysis system, an electromyographical study was done on one mover with five trained movement analysts observing for interobserver reliability. The basic actions were performed with both “free” and “bound flow” and each was shown to have distinctive EMG tracings. The observers showed 90 percent accuracy in identifying the actions.
134. Birdwhistell, Ray L. “A Kinesic-Linguistic Exercise: The Cigarette Scene.” In Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication, edited by J. J. Gumperz and D. Hymes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. Illus.
In this chapter Birdwhistell discusses the instrumental and interactional behavior, kinesic markers, junctures and stress kinemes operating in an 18 second film segment.
135. Birdwhistell, Ray. “The Tertiary Sexual Characteristics of Man: A Fundamental in Human Communication.” In Readings in Contemporary Psychology, edited by R.E. Lana and R.L. Rosnow, pp. 124-129. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
Since the average American actually speaks words for only 10 to 11 minutes daily, we estimate (in pseudostatistics) that more than 65 percent of the social meaning conveyed in two-person interaction is carried by totally nonvocal cues. And it seems clear now that communication must be regarded in the broadest sense as a highly structured system of significant symbols from all the sensory-based modalities.
Kinesics is the discipline concerned with the study of all the body motions which are communicative and which may or may not substitute for and/or illustrate, modify, regulate, and adapt speech. Kinesics is concerned with abstracting from the continuous muscular shifts which are characteristic of living physiological systems those groupings of movements which are of significance to the communicational process and thus to the interactional systems of social groups in general.
Ray L. Birdwhistell in “The Language of the Body: The Natural Environment of Words.”
136. Birdwhistell, Ray L. “The Language of the Body: The Natural Environment of Words.” In Human Communication: Theoretical Explorations, edited by A. Silverstein, pp. 203-220. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1974.
A delightfully written sketch of Birdwhistell’s orientation, how it emerged from communication theories of the 1930s, 40s, and 50s, and how personal and academic experiences shaped the direction of his thinking. He presents a critique of models and concepts that have influenced communication theory (the dyadic model, dichotomizing, action-reaction sequences, input and feedback, the body-mind dualism, and the primacy of words). He describes some fascinating research which showed how little time per day is spent talking (10 to 11 minutes for the average American), whereas paralinguistics, proxemics, kinesics, and comparable systems from other sensory modalities interrelate to compose the greater part of the communication system. In this chapter there is a transcript of a lecture-demonstration of the body’s communication which is as vivid a picture of Birdwhistell in action as is possible from the printed word.
137. Birdwhistell, Ray L. “Some Discussion of Ethnography, Theory and Method.” In About Bateson, edited by J. Brockman, pp. 103-144. New York: Dutton, 1977.
The author discusses discrepancies between methodology and theory and the functioning of a skilled ethnographer. He includes excerpts from a journal written between 1966 and 1968 from which his current research emerged.
138. Bitti-Ricci, Pio, and Cortesi, Sandro. Comportamento Non verbale e Communicazione. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1977.
Referring to a large number of American and German studies, the author deals with nonverbal elements of interpersonal behavior; nonverbal behavior and early social development; nonverbal behavior and psychological disturbances; and nonverbal research methods. Written in Italian.
139. Blacking, John, ed. The Anthropology of the Body. London and New York: Academic Press, 1977. 426 pp. Illus.
A collection of papers from a 1975 conference on the Anthropology of the Body, this book includes “Biological and Cultural Contributions to Body and Facial Movement” by Paul Ekman and “To Dance Is Human: Some Psychobiological Bases of an ‘Expressive’ Form” by Judith Lynne Hanna. Among the other papers dealing with bodily expression and movement are a discussion of medical theories of the relation of psychological states to external appearance, a study of the ritual movements of an Angolan initiation ceremony, and a discussion of the dance notation system of Rudolph Benesh.
140. Blanck, Peter D.; Zuckerman, Miron; DePaulo, Bella M.; and Rosenthal, Robert. “Sibling Resemblances in Nonverbal Skill and Style.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 4 (1980) : 219-226.
This study explored the hypothesis that siblings display a tendency for family resemblance in nonverbal decoding skills. Thirty-seven sibling pairs between the ages of nine and 15 were administered the videotaped Nonverbal Discrepancy Test. This audiovisual test assessed decoding accuracy—the extent to which subjects are able to identify affects (positivity and dominance) from face, body, and tone of voice cues; discrepancy accuracy—the extent to which subjects recognize the degree of discrepancy between audio and video cues; and video primacy—the extent to which subjects are more influenced by video (face or body) than by audio cues. Brotherbrother pairs showed family resemblances in all three nonverbal indexes, whereas brother-sister pairs displayed family similarity only in discrepancy accuracy. Overall, sibling pairs showed a tendency for family resemblance in nonverbal decoding.
141. Blass, Thomas; Freedman, Norbert; and Steingart, Irving. “Body Movement and Verbal Encoding in the Congenitally Blind.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 39 (1974) : 279-293.
The authors first discuss the role of movement in thought construction and then report a study relating hand movements of ten congenitally blind young adults to linguistic skill. Subjects were filmed performing a five-minute monologue, and movements were categorized as object-focused or body-focused. In contrast to previous research on sighted individuals, blind subjects exhibited almost continuous kinetic activity, and unlike sighted subjects, body-focused finger to hand movements of the blind subjects were significantly related to mean words per complex sentence and “complex portrayal sentences.”
142. Blau, Bette, and Siegel, Elaine. “Breathing Together: A Preliminary Investigation of an Involuntary Reflex as Adaptation.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 2 (1978) : 35-42.
Following a discussion of clinical applications of synchronous breathing, the authors present data from their studies concerning the relationship between breathing capacity and psychosis. Thirty-eight psychotic children with a mean age of 10.2 years were compared with a normal control group matched by age, height, and sex. The Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) breathing test and the Oseretsky Test for Motor Proficiency were given to each child. In general, the FVC of the psychotic children was lower and more erratic than that of normal children in the same age range. The psychotic children also tested significantly below normal on motor developmental scales.
143. Blondis, Marion N., and Jackson, Barbara E. Nonverbal Communication with Patients: Back to the Human Touch. New York: Wiley & Sons, 1977. 108 pp.
Based on the authors’ experimental research and their teaching of nonverbal communication skills, this book addresses the dilemma nurses encounter in the dichotomy between technological efficiency and tender patient care. Chapters explicitly discuss pertinent problems encountered with patients throughout the lifecycle and in crisis intervention including problems pertaining to sexual behaviors. A final chapter demystifies concepts of “good” and “bad” patients and discusses the modern patient’s hospital experience and growing awareness and the demands to revise the traditional nursing role.
144. Bloom, Kathleen, ed. Prospective Issues in Infancy Research. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1981. Approx. 192 pp.
145. Blubaugh, Jon A., and Pennington, Dorothy L. Crossing Difference: Interracial Communication. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1976. 102 pp. Illus.
This lively and well-illustrated text on interracial communication includes the practical as well as conceptual level. Each chapter ends with “Awareness Exercises” to achieve change in attitudes and behavior. Chapter seven deals specifically with crossing nonverbal differences and discusses skin color and physiological features, touch, eye expression, time, space, dress, and objects as variables that impact on communication between races.
146. Blum, Lucille H. Reading Between the Lines: Doctor-Patient Communication. New York: International Universities Press, 1972. 183 pp.
Written for medical students, this book encourages insight into the patient’s verbal and nonverbal communications. The first part of the book presents information on human emotional and physiological development, drawing on psychoanalytic theory and emphasizing infancy, a period which, the author argues, tends to be recalled by the patient’s ill-health and dependence on the doctor. The second part explores specific aspects of the physician-patient exchange, including the nonverbal communication of the patient and clues to psychosomatic disorders.
147. Blurton-Jones, N.G., and Konner, M.J. “Sex Differences in Behaviour of London and Bushman Children.” In Comparative Ecology and Behaviour of Primates, edited by R.P. Michael and J.H. Crook, pp. 689-750. London: Academic Press, 1973.
Twenty-three Bushmen and 21 London children age two to six were observed for one hour each during play and their behaviors were recorded according to a large number of facial, gestural, and social categories that were later factor analyzed into clusters. Analysis of the data indicated that boys were significantly higher on measures of aggressive behavior in both cultures. Boys also engaged in more “rough and tumble play” than girls, although the Bushman girls scored much higher than London girls on this measure. In both cultures boys interacted more with other children than with adults, while girls interacted more with adults than with other children. Measures on which there were sex differences for the London children with boys scoring higher than girls but no sex difference among Bushman children include the amounts of vigorous physical activity, sustained directed attention, and social behavior with other children. Among the London children boys preferred to play with boys, but this was not true of the Bushman children. There was a large cultural difference in the amount of interaction with mother.
148. Blyth, W.A.L. “Non-Verbal Elements in Education: Some New Perspectives.” British Journal of Educational Studies 24 (1976) : 109-126. Illus.
This article indicates what some of the nonverbal elements are in education; some ways for the development of these new perspectives; and some suggestions for developing a coherent program of study, practice, and research. A diagram and discussion indicating relationships between verbal and nonverbal elements in education are presented.
149. Bober, Michael Jr. “Body Language: The Student-Engineer’s Aid to Interviewing.” Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 5 (1975) : 7-9.
An anecdotal account of how nonverbal communication can be an important part of a job applicant’s interview.
150. Bockner, S., ed. Cultures in Contact. New York: Pergamon Press, forthcoming.
151. Boderman, Alvin; Freed, Douglas W.; Kinnucan, Mark T. “Touch Me, Like Me: Testing an Encounter Group Assumption.” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 8 (1972) : 527-533.
Twenty-one female college students were randomly assigned to a touch or a notouch condition while interacting with a female confederate during three ESP experiments. The touch condition involved mutual exploration of the face while the eyes were closed. The no-touch condition involved the same interaction without touch. Subjects subsequently rated the accomplice on four dimensions of perceived attractiveness. T-tests revealed that subjects in the touch condition rated the accomplice significantly higher in attractiveness than subjects in the no-touch condition.
152. Bond, Michael H., and Iwata, Yasuo. “Proxemics and Observation Anxiety in Japan: Non-Verbal and Cognitive Responses.” Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in The Orient 19 (1976) : 119-126.
The effects of spatial intrusion and of observation anxiety were examined in an interview situation and compared with self-reports, person perception ratings, and nonverbal measures. Sixteen Japanese women were videotaped while being interviewed twice by confederates who were appropriately or intrusively seated. No effects were seen for observation anxiety. In response to close-sitting interviewers, however, the subjects reported a variety of reactions, interpreted as withdrawal, and rated the intrusive interviewers negatively across a number of person perception scales. Subjects displayed longer pauses, fewer glances, and backward leaning postures during intrusion.
153. Bond, Michael H., and Komai, Hiroshi. “Targets of Gazing and Eye Contact During Interviews: Effects on Japanese Nonverbal Behavior.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976) : 1276-1284.
The authors attempt to distinguish the effects of mutual eye contact versus being a target of another’s gaze. Sixteen Japanese male college juniors were interviewed individually by two male graduate students. Both subjects and interviewers were instructed to gaze either at the other’s eyes or knees. Torso movement, hand gesture and self-manipulation, proximity, smile, response latency, pause average, and total talking time were noted. Interviewer gazing at the subject’s eyes decreased the subject’s torso movements, hand gestures, and response latencies; subject gazing at interviewer’s eyes increased the subject’s hand self-manipulations. Both results were independent of whether or not eye contact was returned.
154. Bond, Michael H., and Shiraishi, Daisuke. “The Effect of Body Lean and Status of an Interviewer on the Non-Verbal Behavior of Japanese Interviewees.” International Journal of Psychology 9 (1974) : 117-128.
Sixteen male and 16 female Japanese university students were interviewed by one of two male graduate students, with status (high or equal) manipulated by interviewer’s clothing and description, and with the interviewer either in a forward leaning or backward leaning position. A number of nonverbal dependent variables were measured and were found to be affected by both the status and body lean variables. Female subjects were most affected, particularly by the status variable.
155. Bonoma, Thomas V., and Felder, Leonard C. “Nonverbal Communication and Marketing: Toward a Communicational Analysis.” Journal of Marketing Research 14 (1977) : 169-180.
The major function of nonverbal indicators for marketing applications is seen as the use of unobtrusive nonverbal behaviors as a check on more easily distorted verbal measures of consumption behavior. Three major types of nonverbal behavior are identified and reviewed: the “units of analysis” approach, the “general catalogue” approach, and the “psychological variables” approach. Of these, the psychological variables approach, which deals with the cognitive meaning of nonverbal communications, is considered to have the greatest potential for marketing analysis. A summary of the findings of this approach focusing on the work of Albert Mehrabian is given. The authors suggest the integration of the findings of Mehrabian with the verbal interaction and analysis scheme “Social Influence Rating System” (SIRS) by Bonoma and his colleagues as a step toward a “communication analysis” for understanding marketing transactions.
156. Booraem, Curtis D., and Flowers, John D. “Reduction of Anxiety and Personal Space as a Function of Assertion Training with Severely Disturbed Neuropsychiatrie Inpatients.” Psychological Reports 30 (1972) : 923-929.
Seven psychiatric inpatients participating in a 12-session assertion training program were compared with a control group who did not receive assertion training. The experimental group showed significant reduction in personal space and selfreported anxiety, while the control group did not. However, there were preand post-treatment differences in the two groups which qualified these results somewhat.
157. Borden, Richard J., and Homleid, Gorden M. “Handedness and Lateral Positioning in Heterosexual Couples: Are Men Still Strong-Arming Women?” Sex Roles 4 (1978) : 67-73.
In a survey of couples walking along a main university thoroughfare, it was found that females were significantly more often on the preferred (dominant) side of males in same-handedness couples.
158. Bosmajian, Harg. The Rhetoric of Nonverbal Communication: Readings. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, 1971.
159. Bossley, M.I. “Privacy and Crowding: A Multidisciplinary Analysis.” ManEnvironment Systems 6 (1976) : 8-19.
Recent models of crowding have stressed the importance of mediating factors in the experience of this subjective state, but the basis of this mediation remains obscure. A multidisciplinary review of the privacy literature suggests two general forms exist. One form appears to have a biological or psychological function, while the other consists of culturally determined factors. The author posits that cultural or subcultural conventions are generally the major influence in the achievement of privacy. The author concludes with a discussion of implications of the present analysis for research into privacy and crowding.
160. Boucher, Michael L. “Effect of Seating Distance on Interpersonal Attraction in an Interview Situation.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 38 (1972) : 15-19.
Forty-two schizophrenic and 42 alcoholic inpatient subjects were randomly assigned to either intermediate, far, or close seating positions during interviews. The effect of the seating on attraction to the interviewer was measured by questionnaire responses and by the unobtrusive measure of having the subject pull up a chair after the interview. Schizophrenic subjects were more attracted to the interviewer at intermediate and far distances. On the unobtrusive measure, the alcoholic subjects kept a greater distance in the closer than in the intermediate condition.
161. Bouissac, Paul A.R. “What Does the Little Finger Do? An Appraisal of Kinesics.” Semiotica 6 (1972) : 279-288.
Starting with a review of Ray L. Birdwhistell’s Kinesics and Context, the author goes on to discuss some of the shortcomings of kinesics research, and suggests a very different way for movement to be assessed in terms of the geometric volume described by the moving part measured through an appropriate device such as in hologrammatic technology.
162. Bouissac, Paul. La mésure des gestes: Prolégomènes à la sémiotique gestuelle. The Hague: Mouton, 1973. 295 pp. Illus.
Growing out of the author’s work on acrobatics and the circus, this book is a search for a means for the scientific description and analysis of dynamic physical activity. Bouissac presents a typology of existing methods, dividing them into “descriptions,” based on natural language, and “transcriptions” using systems of notation, either based on language or attempting a scientific analysis through exact measurement. Examples are discussed for each category, dwelling on the methodological presuppostions of each. Within the category of description are early attempts such as that of A. Tuccaro (1599) and P.J. Barthez (1798), as well as acrobats’ own descriptions of their acts. Examples of scientific notation include the system of Ray L. Birdwhistell which Bouissac claims is not an objective analysis because the iconic or analogic elements of the code root it in the perceptual or cultural filters of the observer. Of those attempting a scientific measurement of movement E. Muybridge (1901), E.J. Marey (1894), and N. Oseretzky (1931) are discussed. In Part IV Bouissac proposes his own process of measurement, positing the necessary steps for the mathematization of movement to segment the dynamic continuum. The final section deals with the level of combination of units and discusses the problem of meaning within a cybernetic model.
163. Bouissac, Paul. Circus and Culture: A Semiotic Approach. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1976. 206 pp. Illus.
This fascinating book is a study of circus acts from a semiotic point of view. Bouissac analyzes circus performances to show how the technical behavior of performers and the zoological components of animal acts are organized along with other subcodes such as costume, music, and language to produce the meaning that the audience perceives. A chapter on “The Performing Horse” deals with the communicative channels between trainer and horse and how these function within the performance. Other chapters deal with the structure of acrobatic acts, juggling and magic acts, and clown performances.
164. Bovard-Taylor, Alice, and Draganosky, Joseph. “Using Personal Space to Develop a Working Alliance in Dance Therapy.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 3 (1979) : 51-59.
Research on proxemics and personal space is summarized, including work done on the relationship between psychopathology and distancing. The use of personal space to establish rapport is highlighted, and clinical applications with reference to cultural or sexual differences are discussed. Therapeutic technique is suggested and a case outline presented.
165. Braithwaite, Ronald L. “An Analysis of Proxemics and Self-Disclosing Behavior of Recidivist and Non-Recidivist Adult Social Offenders from Black, Chicano, and White Inmate Populations.” Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University. 1974. 205 pp. (Order No. 75071-23)
This study investigated self-reported differences in self-disclosure in relation to proxemic distance of three groups of male inmates.
166. Bramblett, Claud. Patterns of Primate Behavior. Palo Alto, California: May field Publishing, 1976.
167. Brannigan, Christopher R., and Humphries, David A. “Human Non-Verbal Behaviour, A Means of Communication.” In Ethological Studies of Child Behaviour, edited by N. Blurton Jones, pp. 37-64. London: Cambridge University Press, 1972. Illus.
This discussion of the application of ethological methods to the study of human communication cites the need for a careful description of expressive patterns and the natural circumstances in which they occur. The authors describe and illustrate examples of units of facial expression and discuss pitfalls in the description and interpretation of human expressive behavior. Evidence concerning a genetic component in nonverbal behavior is discussed, as well as the application of ethology to psychiatry. The article includes a list of 136 units of nonverbal behavior and their definitions as a contribution to the problem of terminology in nonverbal behavior research.
168. Brauer, Dorothea V., and DePaulo, Bella M. “Similarities Between Friends in Their Understanding of Nonverbal Cues.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5 (1980) : 64-68.
Ten pairs of female friends completed a version of the PONS test and a friendship questionnaire. Results showed a marked similarity in decoding of facial cues but not body cues. Additional analyses of nonverbal cue understanding and aspects of the friendship yielded suggested but not significant relationships in facial decoding but not body accuracy.
169. Brazelton, T. Berry; Koslowksi, Barbara; and Main, Mary. “The Origins of Reciprocity: The Early Mother-Infant Interaction.” In The Effect of the Infant on Its Caregiver, edited by M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, pp. 49-76. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974.
An analysis of filmed sequences of mother and infant, and infant and object, recorded weekly from ages four to 20 weeks, showed two different patterns of interaction and expectancy to human and nonhuman stimuli as evidenced in the infant’s cycles of attention and inattention. Differences in the mother’s sensitivity to the infant’s capacity for attention were linked to differences in the interactions over time. The article describes the areas of maternal behavior that influence infant behavior and suggests the role of maternal behavior in the development of the capacity for cognitive acquisitions and self-organization in the infant. The need for rule-learning in the mother-infant relationship especially concerning sensitivity to the infant’s capacity for attention, and the interdependency of interaction rhythms were stressed.
170. Breed, George. “The Effect of Intimacy: Reciprocity or Retreat?” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 11 (1972) : 135-142.
Ninety-six college students interacted with a confederate (female or male) in one of three intimacy conditions differentiated by amount of eye contact, forward body lean, and orientation toward the subject. Periods of eye contact and subject’s shoulder orientation, forward lean, and side lean were recorded. Results went contrary to the “intimacy equilibrium” hypothesis and showed that subject’s forward leans and eye contaçt increased as intimacy increased. There was significantly more eye contact with the male confederate than with the female. The male confederate received significantly more forward leans and was directly faced significantly more than the female confederate. Male subjects leaned backward significantly more than females. Female subjects shifted body position significantly more than male subjects, and all subjects shifted position significantly more with the female confederate than with the male.
171. Breed, George, and Colaiuta, Victoria. “Looking, Blinking, and Sitting: Nonverbal Dynamics in the Classroom.” Journal of Communication 24 (1974) : 75-81.
Fifty-two college students’ seating choices and their nonverbal behaviors were correlated with their scores on a course midterm and final. Higher test scores were associated with less looking around, less blinking, more looking at the instructor, and more writing time, while different patterns of nonverbal behavior were associated with different seating positions. The highest grades were made by those who could not be characterized as sitting in a specific territory.
172. Breed, George, and Porter, Maynard. “Eye Contact, Attitudes, and Attitude Change Among Males.” The Journal of Genetic Psychology 120 (1972) : 211-217.
Twenty-four male undergraduates talked to a silent confederate partner for about four minutes under one of three role-playing conditions (like, dislike, control). For two of the four minutes the confederate looked constantly into the subject’s eye while for the other two minutes he did not. For half of the subjects the confederate began by looking. For the other half he began by not looking. The experimenter recorded the subjects’ search for eye contact with the confedrate, and prior to and immediately after the experiment both subjects and confederates described each other on a questionnaire. Among the results it was found that subjects’ amount of eye contact with the confederate correlated with positive attitude toward the confederate.
173. Bremme, Donald W., and Erickson, Frederick. “Relationships Among Verbal and Nonverbal Classroom Behaviors.” Theory into Practice 16 (1977) : 153-161.
In a kindergarten/first grade classroom, five videotaped occurrences of “First Circle” (a social occasion occurring each morning) were examined. Analysis of the words spoken, features of the teacher’s behavior (4 vocal, 4 nonverbal), and features of the students’ behavior (4 vocal, 6 nonverbal) was done for recurring patterns of behavior. Three broad social situations were recurrently enacted within First Circle (teacher’s time, students’ time, and transition), and particular forms of both verbal and nonverbal behavior defined each form.
174. Bretherton, Inge, and Ainsworth, Mary D. Salter. “Responses of One Year Olds to Strangers in a Strange Situation.” In Origins of Fear, edited by M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, pp. 131-164. New York: Wiley & Sons, 1974. Illus.
The authors here present a short study examining the behavioral reactions of infants to strangers in an unfamiliar environment. It explores and provides evidence of an interrelationship between four behavioral systems: affiliative, fear/wariness, attachment, and exploratory.
175. Brislin, Richard W. “Seating as a Measure of Behavior: You Are Where You Sit.” Topics in Culture Learning 2 (1974) : 103-118. Illus.
Where people sit is an important index of how they feel about others, as well as how people judge their acceptance or rejection by others. This article reviews studies of what seating behavior means. In addition to an examination of the “who, who with, what doing, when, where, why, and how of seating,” the author succinctly reviews those studies dealing with the applied use of seating behavior measures including their cross-cultural applications.
176. Broekmann, Neil C., and Möller, André T. “Preferred Seating Position and Distance in Various Situations.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 20 (1973) : 504-508.
Fifteen white males and 15 white females from South Africa were given the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire and the Personal, Home, Social and Formal Relations Questionnaire. Subjects were shown pictures of various seating arrangements and asked in which of several social settings they would feel most comfortable if seated in that position. Differences were found in preferred seating arrangements for various situations; seating position preferences for home situations differed from all others. Far seating was strongly associated with submissive personality traits while closer seating was associated with aggressive and domineering traits.
177. Brooks, Jeanne, and Lewis, Michael. “Attachment Behavior in ThirteenMonth-Old Opposite Sex Twins.” Child Development 45 (1974) : 243-247.
Thirty-four children, 17 sets of opposite-sex twins, were observed one at a time with their mothers during 15-minute free play sessions. Observers recorded the incidence of the following behaviors: touching mother, looking at mother, pleasant vocalizations to mother, proximity to mother, during unstructured play. Also recorded were toys played with and amount of movement. Girls displayed significantly more attachment behaviors of looking at and proximity to mother, nonsignificantly more touch and vocalization. Boys who were seen after their sisters displayed significantly more touch and proximity behaviors than boys who were seen first. Girls showed significantly more looking behaviors than boys regardless of order seen. There were no differences in toy play or activity level.
178. Brown, Duane, and Parks, James C. “Interpreting Nonverbal Behavior, a Key to More Effective Counseling: Review of Literature.” Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 15 (1972) : 176-184.
The author provides a basic literature review on eye contact, gesture, and proxemics and discusses its relevance to the rehabilitation counselor.
179. Brown, G.A. “An Exploratory Study of Interaction Amongst British and Immigrant Children.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 12 (1973) : 159-162.
Thirty-six British and 37 immigrant children working together in informally structured classrooms were studied. Group members were observed one at a time for five seconds, and nonaggressive verbal, aggressive verbal, nonaggressive bodily, and aggressive bodily contacts were noted. More aggression was shown by the immigrant children towards each other than towards the British children. Differences in verbal contacts seemed to point towards a language barrier.
180. Brown, Jerram L. The Evolution of Behavior. New York: W.W. Norton, 1975. 761 pp. Illus.
Drawing upon studies by zoologists, evolutionists, geneticists, ecologists, ethologists, and psychologists, this text presents a comparative study of behavior. The answers to questions raised by the comparative study of behavior are sought within the framework of evolutionary biology. Animal communication receives emphatic treatment here. There is an outline of the evolution of territoriality and an analysis of the space around an individual, as well as the patterns and temporal changes in animal dispersion. Reflexes, motor coordination, sensory systems, and orientation of animals are explored. The development of songs and calls—as well as the programming of behavior (with a focus on biological rhythms, attention, and motivation)—receives structured, disciplined analysis.
181. Brown, Malcolm. “The New Body Psychotherapies.” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice 10 (1973) : 98-116.
While exhorting the reader to listen to the wisdom of her or his body, the author discusses the virtues of four body psychotherapies: (1) Gestalt Therapy, as practiced by Fritz Perls; (2) orthodox Reichian Therapy; (3) Lowenian Bio-Energetics; and (4) Janov’s Primal Therapy. Each therapy adheres to a principle of natural organismic self-regulation. Each intends to bring the patient’s awareness into closer congruence with his or her deeper organismic sensations. The presentation includes a forceful critique of each therapy.
182. Brown, Susan Rosensweig. “Eye Contact As An Indicator of Infant Social Development.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California. 1972. 99 pp. (Order No. 72216-54)
The eye contact behavior of one hundred babies from various well-baby clinics was observed in three-minute periods. Home observations were then made on the 20 infants having highest and lowest amounts of eye contact to assess differences in maternal caretaking.
183. Bruchon, Marilou. “Une modalité expressive de la personnalité: l’expansivité gestuelle.” Bulletin de Psychologie 26 (1972-73) : 4-21.
In this study, written in French, a correlation was found between extroversion and the use of larger movements in writing and posture and between amplitude in movements in general and emotional stability. The author points to the flaws in the study: how does a subject’s experience or love of dance and music, for example, influence the test for amplitude in movements while dancing freely to music? And how far do cultural determinants influence one’s way of moving (southern Europeans move more expansively than northern Europeans). She suggests investigating speed of movement or muscle tone in relation to personality.
184. Bruchon, Marilou. “Les mouvements expressifs et la personnalité.” Année Psychologique 73 (1973) : 311-337.
This article surveys phenomenological, empirical, and structural studies that have tried to relate certain expressive movements to personality and gives examples of each, such as the movement correlates to the anabolic versus catabolic personalities of the Italian school. It also cites a few studies on muscle tonicity and posture as expressive variables. The author concludes that, although two hypotheses on research of this kind, namely that expressive movements are stable and that they are organized in functional units, have been proven by a few structural studies, it would require a combination of all three types to investigate their psychological correlates.
185. Bruneau, Thomas J. “Communicative Silences: Forms and Function.” Journal of Communication 23 (1973) : 17-46.
The nature of silence is discussed from several vantage points: as a mental construct, as background for speech signs, as a manifestation of the relationship to subjective time as opposed to artificial time, and as it relates to sensation, perception, and metaphorical movement. Three major forms of silence are defined and described as they relate to some important communication factors: 1) Psycholinguistic Silence, including fast-time and slow-time silence; 2) Interactive Silence; and 3) Sociocultural Silence.
186. Bruner, Jerome. “The Ontogenesis of Speech Acts.” In Social Rules and Social Behaviour, edited by P. Collett. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977. 185 pp.
The author correlates mother-infant nonverbal behaviors (eye contact, following each other’s focus, role shifting during play) with signaling and sequencing rules later applicable to the rules of grammar.
187. Bryan, Tanis H. “Learning Disabled Children’s Comprehension of Nonverbal Communication.” Journal of Learning Disabilities 10 (1977) : 501-506.
The children’s PONS test (Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity) was administered to 23 learning-disabled (LD) children and a control group. LD children were significantly less accurate than normal children on the PONS. The author discusses the implications of apparent deficit in reading social cues as measured by this test.
188. Buchanan, Douglas R.; Juhnke, Ralph; and Goldman, Morton. “Violation of Personal Space as a Function of Sex.” Journal of Social Psychology 99 (1976) : 187-192.
Subjects were 215 people using the elevators in a large office building. The elevators had floor selection panels at either side of the door. In Experiment I, a female or male confederate stood 12 inches from one of these panels. Subjects tended to avoid intruding on the confederate’s personal space. Female subjects were most prone to violate a female’s space. In Experiment II, a female and a male confederate stood by each panel respectively, thus forcing subjects to violate personal space. While females showed no significant preference, males more often chose to violate female confederates’ space.
189. Buck, Ross. “A Test of Nonverbal Receiving Ability: Preliminary Studies.” Human Communication Research 2 (1976) : 162-171.
The development of a new instrument for measuring the ability to decode affect in others, the Communication of Affect Receiving Ability Test (CARAT), is described. Subjects watch videotapes of “senders” reacting spontaneously to emotionally loaded slides and judge the type of emotional stimulus involved and the degree of pleasant or unpleasant affect experienced by the sender. Preliminary tests showed the instrument to have a moderate degree of internal consistency. Results showed females slightly better in decoding affect than males and business and fine arts majors better than science majors.
190. Buck, Ross. “Nonverbal Behavior and the Theory of Emotion: The Facial Feedback Hypothesis.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 (1980) : 811-824.
A review of relevant research indicates that only a restricted version of the facial feedback hypothesis has been tested. The hypothesis—that skeletal muscle feedback from facial expressions plays a role in regulating emotional experience and behavior—has not been studied in sufficient detail. The author argues that the studies which appear to support the hypothesis are flawed in certain respects and are unconvincing.
191. Buck, Ross; Baron, Reuben; Goodman, Nancy; and Shapiro, Beth. “Unitization of Spontaneous Nonverbal Behavior in the Study of Emotion Communication.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980) : 522-529.
Videotapes of spontaneous facial and gestural reactions to affective slides were segmented by observers using an adaptation of Newtson’s unitization technique (1976, D. Newtson). The authors conducted experiments using the Newtson procedure to explore three questions: Is it possible for receivers to meaningfully segment spontaneous emotion displays? Do the same type of stimulus variables affect the number of breakpoints? What are the relationships between the number of breakpoints and communication accuracy? Results of their experimentation demonstrated that the unitization technique applied to emotion expression yields reliable patterns of segmentation.
192. Buck, Ross, and Duffy, R. “Nonverbal Communication of Affect in BrainDamaged Patients.” Cortex, in press.
A slide-viewing technique designed to assess spontaneous nonverbal expressiveness was administered to eight left-hemisphere-damaged (aphasie), ten righthemisphere-damaged (RHD), nine Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and ten nonbraindamaged (control) male patients. Patients watched affective slides while, unknown to them, their facial/gestural responses were videotaped. Judges rated their reactions. Results indicated that aphasies were more expressive than controls, while RHD and PD patients were less expressive. The possibility that spontaneous nonverbal expressiveness is mediated by the right cerebral hemisphere, with the left hemisphere playing an inhibitory role, was discussed as a tentative hypothesis, (author’s abstract)
193. Buck, Ross W.; Miller, Robert E.; and Caul, William F. “Sex, Personality and Physiological Variables in the Communication of Affect via Facial Expressions.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974) : 587-596.
Thirty-two “senders” were shown 25 emotionally loaded color slides. Unknown to them, their facial expressions were televised to an observer/partner who attempted to judge which slide category the sender was watching. The observer rated how pleasant or unpleasant he thought the sender’s reaction was. Among the results it was found that pairs with female senders showed more accurate communication than pairs with male senders. The relationship between accuracy, physiological responsiveness, and personality differences is also discussed.
194. Buck, Ross W.; Savin, Virginia J.; Miller, Robert E.; and Caul, William F. “Communication of Affect through Facial Expressions in Humans.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 23 (1972) : 362-371.
Ten observer and sender pairs of female college students and nine observer and sender pairs of male college students participated in this study. Twenty-five color slides representing five categories (sexual, scenic, maternal, disgusting, unusual/ambiguous) were shown to the senders. The observer partner watched the sender’s face (without audio) on closed-circuit TV and attempted to judge what category of slide the sender was watching. He or she then rated the sender’s emotional experience on a pleasant-unpleasant scale. The results revealed a significant degree of correspondence, particularly among the female pairs. Physiological and personality factors of facial expression are also discussed.
195. Buckhalt, Joseph A.; Rutherford, Robert B.; and Goldberg, Kay E. “Verbal and Nonverbal Interaction of Mothers with their Down’s Syndrome and Nonretarded Infants.” American Journal of Mental Deficiency 82 (1978) : 337-343.
In an observational, laboratory-based study, the authors compared verbal and nonverbal interactions between ten mothers and their Down’s syndrome infants and ten mothers and their nonretarded infants. Although there was no difference between the groups in mothers’ language complexity, mothers of Down’s syndrome children spoke at a significantly faster rate. Also Down’s syndrome babies smiled and vocalized less, but mothers of the two groups did not significantly differ on the nonverbal interactional behavior observed.
196. Budd, Richard W., and Ruben, Brent D., eds. Approaches to Human Communication. New York: Spartan Books, 1972. 464 pp.
Among the many approaches to communication represented in this volume are encounter groups by Richard W. Budd, General System Theory by Brent D. Ruben, nonverbal behavior by Randall P. Harrison, psychology by Ralph V. Exline, and zoology by Hubert Frings.
197. Bugental, Daphne E.; Love, Leonore R.; and Gianetto, Robert M. “Perfidious Feminine Faces.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 17 (1971) : 314-318.
Forty families, half with disturbed children and half with normal children, were involved in this study of the verbal and nonverbal (smiling) behavior of parents interacting with their children. Smiles by the fathers were found to accompany positive or approving verbal content, while smiles by the mothers were unrelated to the evaluative content of her speech. There was no relation between the patterns of parental smiling and children’s disturbance. The lower-class mothers in this study were found not to smile at all.
198. Bugental, Daphne E.; Love, Leonore R.; Kaswan, Jacques; and April, Carol. “Verbal-Nonverbal Conflict in Parental Messages to Normal and Disturbed Children.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 77 (1971) : 6-10.
Ten “normal” and ten families with a “disturbed” child were videotaped. Mothers with disturbed children produced a higher percentage of conflicting evaluative messages between channels (verbal, voice tone, kinesics) as compared with the normal family mothers. The evaluative message of fathers of disturbed and normal children did not show this difference.
199. Bull, P.E., and Brown, R. “The Role of Postural Change in Dyadic Conversations.” British Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology 16 (1977) : 29-33.
Scheflen’s observations associating postural changes with significant features in the structure of conversation are tested. Some support for Scheflen’s work is presented. This work involves an interesting study design and clear presentation of findings.
200. Bullowa, Margaret, ed. Before Speech: The Beginning of Interpersonal Communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. 400 pp. Illus.
In this rich and fascinating volume many of the most noted infancy researchers discuss their methods of work and major findings often from a personal point of view. In an introduction the editor discusses precursors and influences of the field of prelinguistic communication, issues and concepts, relevant literature, organizations, conferences, and methods. Mary Catherine Bateson, Patricia F. Chappell and Louis W. Sander, Glyn M. Collis, William S. Condon, M.A.K. Halliday, Kenneth Kaye, John Newson, Colwyn Trevarthen, and E. Tronick, H. Als, and L. Adamson have contributed chapters on varying aspects of structure and development of interaction in infancy. There are discussions of communicative capacities evident in neonatal assessment by T. Berry Brazelton, of communication between blind infants and their mothers by Selma Fraiberg, and of a screening program for communication disorders by Karen Stensland Junker. Derek Ricks has contributed a discussion of early vocal communication in autistic and normal children, E. Richard Sorenson a study of tactile communication in New Guinea, and Frans Plooij a discussion of wild chimpanzee mother-infant play. There is also a chapter on the role of ideologies in child-rearing by Catherine Snow, Akke de Blauw, and Ghislaine van Roosmalen.
201. Burgoon, Judee K. “A Communication Model of Personal Space Violations: Explication and an Initial Test.” Human Communication Research 4 (1978) : 129-142.
The author discusses the Burgoon-Jones model of personal space expectations and their violation as a theoretical system and reports the results of an initial test of the model. Ten primitive terms and 16 constitutive terms together yield the basic axioms of the system, which are combined with a number of assumptions about affiliation, distance and expectations and their violation to generate 13 propositions concerning personal space expectations and the effect of their violation on communication outcomes. The results of an experiment testing five hypotheses on the relationship of distance and positive and negative feedback to recall, attraction, and credibility as communication outcomes provided some support for the model. Positive feedback was found to influence credibility and attraction, and curvilinear relationships were found between distance and communication outcomes for both positive and negative feedback conditions.
202. Burgoon, Judee. “Nonverbal Communication Research in the 1970s.” In Communication Yearbook IV, edited by D. Nimmo. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, forthcoming.
203. Burgoon, Judee, and Saine, Thomas. The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1978. Illus.
The authors divide their book into two sections. The first is a discussion of the components of nonverbal communication. Included here are definitions, theoretical approaches, and a discussion of kinesics, haptics, physical appearance, vocalics, chronemics, and artifacts as conveyers of nonverbal messages. Individual, subcultural, and cultural differences are described. Section Two relates to the functions of nonverbal communication. Impression formation, relational messages, communication of affect, regulation of interaction, presentation of self, and manipulation of others are topics considered in this section.
204. Burns, Jo Ann, and Kintz, B.L. “Eye Contact While Lying During an Interview.” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 7 (1976) : 87-89.
Twenty college students were interviewed by a male or female confederate. The dependent variable was frequency and duration of eye contact as measured by a stopwatch, measured before and after subjects were asked to lie. Results showed that males looked longer into the female confederates’ eyes while lying and the females looked longer into the male confederates’ eyes while lying.
205. Burns, Kenton L., and Beier, Ernst G. “Significance of Vocal and Visual Channels in the Decoding of Emotional Meaning.” Journal of Communication 23 (1973) : 118-130.
Six groups of 21 college students each rated several portrayals of seven affective states (angry, sad, happy, seductive, anxious, indifferent, and sarcastic). Each of the six groups rated the portrayals which had been recorded on film under six different conditions; audio/visual, filtered audio/visual, audio, visual, filtered audio, and content. It was found that with visual cues only accuracy declines and that when only audio cues are available accuracy drops still further. However, visual cues provided more information for the decoding of “happy” than combined audio and visual cues.
206. Burnside, Irene Mortenson. “Touching is Talking.” American Journal of Nursing 73 (1973) : 2060-2063. Illus.
The author describes her experiences incorporating the use of touch into sessions designed to increase stimuli for aged patients with organic brain syndrome.
207. Burroughs, W.; Schultz, W.; and Autrey, S. “Quality of Argument, Leadership Votes, and Eye Contact in Three-Person Leaderless Groups.” Journal of Social Psychology 90 (1973) : 89-93.
Thirty female undergraduates participated in the study. Pairs of subjects were placed in a dyad with a confederate. The confederate used either high or low quality arguments in her discussion. Dependent variables were number of leadership votes and eye contact. It was found that high quality arguments elicited more eye contact and more leadership votes.
208. Burton, Arthur. “The Presentation of the Face in Psychotherapy.” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 10 (1973) : 301-304.
The author discusses the importance of the face in interpersonal relations. He argues that by judiciously allowing his facial expression to be fully communicative of his “being,” the psychotherapist can facilitate the therapeutic process and the ability of the patient to use his face expressively.
209. Byers, Paul E. “From Biological Rhythm to Cultural Pattern: A Study of Minimal Units.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. 1972. 128 pp. (Order No. 73-9004)
Speech samples in eight languages including English, Eskimo, Cree, and Bushman were recorded on sound tape, and pen drawings were made of the amplitude of the speech signals at a vastly slowed rate. At this rate speech was seen to be generated in pulses that reflect an underlying biological rhythm. Parallels with body movement were investigated. Analysis of films of Eskimos and rhesus monkeys revealed a common rhythm underlying behavior which matches that of speech.
There are those who think or believe that communicating—even nonverbally—is a matter of exchanging messages and their science is, one way or another, the study of those messages, their creators or originators, and their effects. Many people do very strongly believe that the universe contains causes which have effects. On the other hand, there are those of us who begin with the premise that one of man’s most necessary pursuits is getting it together harmoniously with others of his own and other species and that communication is the means by which this is done. We don’t study messages. We study, instead, the organization of the communication behavior between or among interactants.
Paul Byers’ discussion in Interaction Rhythms: Periodicity in Communicative Behavior, edited by M. Davis. New York: Human Sciences Press, forthcoming.
210. Byers, Paul. “Biological Rhythms as Information Channels in Interpersonal Communication Behavior.” In Perspectives in Ethology II, edited by P.P.G. Bateson and H. Klopfer, pp. 135-164. New York: Plenum, 1976.
The author cites evidence for the existence of a universal biological rhythm of ten cycles per second and of a seven-cycle-per-second rhythm in humans which is related to speech. Analyses of filmed interactions of Netsilik Eskimos and of rhesus monkeys reveal a ten-cycle-per-second rhythm underlying body movement. The author links these periodicities to basic brain rhythms that pace and integrate behavior, and discusses communication as the sharing of rhythm states by interactants.
211. Byers, Paul, and Byers, Happie. “Nonverbal Communication and the Education of Children.” In Functions of Language in the Classroom, edited by C. Cazden, V. John, and D. Hymes, pp. 3-31. New York: Teachers College Press, 1972.
Communication as participation in relationship is the theme of this discussion of nonverbal communication and the role of the teacher. The authors argue that the nonverbal aspects of communication are culturally organized and that development in nonverbal communication is necessary for full participation in a culture. A teacher’s role is to help a child learn the culture’s codes. The analysis of a film of a nursery school class with two white middle-class children, two black children, and a white teacher revealed a mismatch in communication systems between the teacher and the black children. Sharing of nonverbal codes is necessary in order for a child to learn.
212. Byrne, Donn; Baskett, Glen D.; and Hodges, Louis. “Behavioral Indicators of Interpersonal Attraction.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 1 (1971) : 137-149.
The experiments in this study were designed to test the finding that “physical distance between two individuals is related to degree of acquaintance or positiveness of the relationship between them.” Subjects were tested under two conditions: seated in a semicircular arrangement and seated at a card table with confederates who had expressed similar attitudes or dissimilar attitudes to their own. In each experiment the confederates were the same sex as the subject. Among the results, it was found in the semicircular arrangement females preferred sitting beside the confederate who had expressed similar attitudes to their own than to the confederate who had expressed dissimilar attitudes. For males there was no significant relationship. In the card table arrangement males preferred sitting across from the preferred confederate, while females revealed no systematic preference.
213. Cade, Theo Marshall. “A Cross Cultural Study of Personal Space in the Family.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii. 1972. 139 pp. (Order No. 72-31,051)
Two studies, the first involving Hawaiian-Oriental and Caucasian families and the second American, Filipino, and Japanese families, investigated the use of an instrument to measure personal space within the family by manipulating figures representing family members. Both studies yielded similar vertical and horizontal patterns in family member placements, with parents highest, father to the left, daughter to the right, and husband-wife and brother-sister relationships not significantly differentiated.
214. Caplow-Lindner, Erna; Harpaz, Leah; and Sambert, Sonya. Therapeutic Dance/Movement: Expressive Activities for Older Adults. New York: Human Sciences Press, 1979. 283 pp. Illus.
215. Carlsoo, Sven. How Man Moves: Kinesiological Methods and Studies. New York: International Publications Service, 1973.
216. Carr, Suzanne J., and Dabbs, James M. Jr. “The Effects of Lighting, Distance, and Intimacy of Topic on Verbal and Visual Behavior.” Sociometry 37 (1974) : 592-600.
Forty female undergraduates took part in two interviews, one involving nonintimate questions and one involving intimate questions. For the intimate interview the subject sat far from or near to the experimenter in a brightly or dimly lit room. In the intimate interview subjects decreased amount of verbal disclosure and number of eye contacts. The interview was seen to be more intimate and less appropriate in the dim and near conditions than the others. Subjects liked the interviewer and the interview better in the near condition. In the dim condition subjects decreased eye contact and increased latency, compared with the bright condition.
217. Carr, Suzanne J.; Dabbs, James M. Jr.; and Carr, Timothy S. “MotherInfant Attachment: The Importance of the Mother’s Visual Field.” Child Development 46 (1975) : 331-338. Illus.
The authors address the importance of mother/child face-to-face contact and the interaction between visual behavior, verbal behavior, and proximity. Nineteen male and five female children, aged 18 to 30 months, were placed in a room. Their mothers spent five minutes in face-to-face contact; turned 180° away from the child; and seated behind a partition. Proximity and child behavior (activity level, talking, crying, time spent within the mother’s visual field) were assessed. In the two nonfaceto-face conditions children left toys to be within the mother’s visual field 50 percent of the time, were more active, looked at her more, talked less, and tended to play closer to her. When the mother was seated behind a partition, the children talked more when they moved farther away.
218. Cartier, Shirley Virginia. “The Relationship Between Introversion-Extroversion and the Ability to Assess Nonverbal Behavior Patterns.” Ed.D. dissertation, Boston University School of Education. 1972. 159 pp. (Order No. 72-25,424)
Counselors in training were tested with the Eysenck Personality Inventory and placed into one of six groups according to combinations of degree of extroversionintroversion and neuroticism. They rated a film of a counseling session with a semantical differentiated scale based on 40 nonverbal concepts. Scores by the high introverts and high extroverts did not significantly differ.
219. Cary, Mark S. “The Role of Gaze in the Initiation of a Conversation.” Social Psychology 41 (1978) : 269-271.
Experimenters studied videotapes of 80 pairs of unacquainted undergraduates in a waiting room. Almost all dyads shared a mutual look as the second member entered the room. If they looked again after the person closed the door, conversation was likely. In opposite-sex pairs conversation was initiated by the male 72 percent of the time.
220. Cary, Mark S. “Comparing Film and Videotape.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 3 (1979): 243-247.
This review compares videotape and film to help the researcher choose the one most suited to the specific research problem. The review treats initial costs, running costs, resolution, required light levels, sound, color, processing, and data viewing. Half-inch videotape is the most versatile equipment, especially indoors. A motordriven 35-mm camera is necessary when extreme resolution is required.
221. Cary, Mark S. “Gaze and Facial Display in Pedestrian Passing.” Semiotica 28 (1979) : 323-326.
Sixty pictures each were taken of a single person or of passing pairs of people where only one person was seen head-on in the picture. The 60 singles pictures were of 30 males and 30 females, and the 60 passing pairs were of 15 each of the four combinations of the sexes. A second set of photos contained sequences of 40 singles and 40 pairs balanced for equal numbers of all sex combinations. People did not freeze their head or gaze position while passing. No instances of tongue-shows, tongue-incheek, or lip bites were found. No differences were found between pedestrians walking alone down a street and those about to pass another person. No effects due to sex were found except that cross-sex pairs were more likely to look at each other than were same-sex pairs.
222. Cary, Mark S., and Rudick-Davis, Dave. “Judging the Sex of an Unseen Person from Nonverbal Cues.” Sex Roles 5 (1979) : 355-361.
Raters able to see only one person in videotapes of a dyadic interaction could fairly well guess the sex of the unseen partner when the viewed subject was male (but not when the partner in view was female). However, in a second study, when subjects were not instructed to treat their partners in a sex-stereotyped way as they were in the last condition, raters had difficulty guessing the sex of the unseen partner.
223. Chaikin, Alan L.; Sigler, Edward; and Derlega, Valerian J. “Nonverbal Mediators of Teacher Expectancy Effects.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974) : 144-149.
Forty-two undergraduates (half male and half female) tutored one of two male “students” who had been represented as bright, dull, or neither. While tutoring/microteaching, the subjects were unknowingly videotaped. Videotape scoring showed that those with a “bright” student smiled more, leaned forward more, had more direct eye gaze, and nodded their heads up and down more than did those who were in the control condition or those who thought their students were dull. Females smiled more and leaned forward less than males across all conditions.
224. Chaiklin, Harris, ed. Marian Chace: Her Papers. Columbia, Maryland: American Dance Therapy Association, 1975. 261 pp.
A collection of the writings of the “mother” of dance therapy, this book contains the majority of her works over a thirty-year period. Biographical material is included, as well as published and unpublished papers. Chace’s papers cover such topics as relaxation, social contact, stimulation, and aggression. The edition concludes with panel discussions on rhythm and the meaning of movement and articles about the effects of her dance therapy treatment.
225. Chaiklin, Sharon. “Dance Therapy.” In American Handbook of Psychiatry, Vol. V, edited by D.X. Freedman and J.E. Dryud, pp. 701-720. New York: Basic Books, 1975.
This article, written for readers unfamiliar with dance therapy or other bodyoriented therapies, briefly summarizes the literature, history, and development of the profession and its relationship to psychiatric theory. Separate sections discuss the use of dance therapy with psychotic and neurotic adults and autistic children, with an emphasis on its rehabilitative potential. A last section presents the usefulness of movement observation systems such as Labananalysis.
226. Chapman, Antony J. “Eye Contact, Physical Proximity and Laughter: A ReExamination of the Equilibrium Model of Social Intimacy.” Social Behavior and Personality 3 (1975) : 143-155.
Forty boys and 40 girls seven years of age were assigned to same-sex dyads seated at one of two interpersonal distances. One or both members of the dyad listened to humorous material on headphones. Time spent in eye contact with the other child, time spent laughing, and time spent smiling were measured. At the nearer distance there was more eye contact during coaction (both with headphones) than in noncoactive dyads, but no difference at the farther distance. Subjects laughed and smiled more in coactive situations than in noncoactive, and within coactive situations they laughed and smiled more when they sat closer together. In the coactive conditions, the subjects who laughed and smiled most also engaged in the most eye contact. The author discusses his findings as a reversal of Argyle and Dean’s equilibrium model of intimacy.
227. Chapple, Eliot D. “Toward a Mathematical Model of Interaction: Some Preliminary Considerations.” In Explorations in Mathematical Anthropology edited by P. Kay, pp. 141-178. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1971.
This chapter begins with a concise summary of Chapple’s theoretical framework and system for assessing the individual’s basic interaction rhythm and the interrelation of rhythms in two-person interactions. The basic parameters he measures are oscillations of action and inaction of which speaking and silence are one important case. He discusses patterns of double actions in a dyad (interruptions) and patterns of latency of response and termination of interaction. After laying the conceptual groundwork for mathematical equations for the individual’s “initial state” rhythms which he regards as deterministic, Chapple discusses cultural constraints, such as spatial distance, on the initial state equations. Interaction of more than two persons requires, according to Chapple, a probabilistic model.
228. Chapple, Eliot D. The Biological Foundations of Individuality and Culture. Huntington, New York: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., 1980.
Originally published in 1970 under the title Culture and Biological Man, this work is a synthesis of almost 35 years of interaction research. The 1980 edition has a 24-page updating preface elaborating in particular Chapple’s argument for adopting the term “Humanics” for the science of interaction. Part I is concerned with the definition of behavior units and measurement of fixed action patterns, circadian rhythms, biological rhythms and personality, and the relation of rhythms of action and inaction to emotion, temperament, and personality. It includes a chapter on the genetic origins of fixed action patterns. Part II focuses on the dimensions of culture that provide constraints on the individual and dyadic interaction rhythms. It includes chapters on constraints of distance, space, sequencing of actions, institutional organization, symbols, and roles on interaction. The final chapters deal with the influence of life crises and rites of passage on interactions and future development of interaction forms. While the topics discussed are quite broad and general, it should be emphasized that this treatise on interaction is based on Chapple’s very specific definition and analysis of interaction rhythms.
“. . . there was one universal which seemed to enter into every situation. It was the time duration of events between people, their frequency and the order in which one or another person was expected to initiate or, as we [Chapple and Conrad Arensberg] called it, originate an event. . . . We began with time duration and frequency of events, but to record them found we had to distinguish the actions and inactions between them, beginnings and endings of events themselves being susceptible to alternate explanatory criteria and this was in 1936.“
Eliot D. Chapple from “The Unbounded Reaches of Anthropology as a Research Science and Some Working Hypotheses.” Paper presented at the meeting of the American Anthropological Association, 1979.
229. Chapple, Eliot D., and Lui, Yau-yin. “Populations of Coupled Non-Linear Oscillators in Anthropological Biology Systems.” IEEE International Conference on Cybernetics and Society Proceedings (1976) : 332-335.
A unique effort to develop a mathematical model for the individual’s “action and inaction tempo” in terms of vander Pol-type equations, its extension to dyadic interactions, with a third set of equations for interaction oscillators for groups of more than two. This highly technical paper is notable for its analysis of interaction rhythms in a “hard-science” way.
230. Chauvin, Rémy. Ethology: The Biological Study of Animal Behavior. New York: International Universities Press, 1975. 245 pp. Illus.
Discussion of the building, learning, migration, orientation, mating, and attachment behaviors of animals is followed by a review of animal communication. The book concludes with a chapter on ethological concepts and problems of definition.
231. Chauvin, Rémy, and Muckensturn-Chauvin, Bernadette. Behavioral Complexities. New York: International Universities Press, 1979.
232. Cheney, Gay, ed. “Dance Therapy Annotated Bibliography.” CORD News 4 (1972) : 7-56.
This 243-title bibliography contains abstracts on a number of books and articles in the subject area of nonverbal communication.
233. Cherry, Colin. On Human Communication: A Review, A Survey, and A Criticism, Third Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1978. 374 pp. Illus.
The third edition includes a new chapter on the “human-ness” of human communication. Facial expression, gesture, eye movement, and proxemics are described as part of the communication ritual.
234. Cherulnik, Paul D. “Sex Differences in the Expression of Emotion in a Structured Social Encounter.” Sex Roles 5 (1979) : 413-424.
Eighteen male and 18 female college students were videotaped while responding to 10 questions designed to elicit weak or strong affective responses. Raters judged whether there were recognizable facial expressions, and women were found to have more than men and to be judged as having more “happy” and “excited” affects than the men. No sex differences were found in duration or latency of answers or visual behavior.
235. Chester, Sondra L., and Egolf, Donald B. “Nonverbal Communication and Aphasia Therapy.” Rehabilitation Literature 35 (1974) : 231-233.
The various categories of nonverbal communication were listed and described. Five major reasons for recognizing and incorporating the principles and techniques of nonverbal communication into aphasia therapy were listed. A modified version of Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique was used to conduct a preliminary investigation of the interactions (both verbal and nonverbal) of aphasies and others (professionals, family, and so on). Of the 113 critical incidents reported, 91 were judged to be negative and 22 were judged to be positive.
236. Cheyne, J.A. “Development of Forms and Functions of Smiling in Preschoolers.” Child Development 47 (1976) : 820-823.
In this study of 150 preschoolers, smiling frequency, forms (upper, closed, or broad smile), and persons with whom the child interacted were noted during normal play periods. Upper smile frequency increased with older age groups, whereas no change in frequency of closed or broad smiles was found between groups. Upper smiles were used more with same-sex peers, and frequency and forms of boys smiling at girls was markedly similar to that of smiling at teachers.
237. Cheyne, James A. “The Effect of Spatial and Interpersonal Variables on the Invasion of Group Controlled Territories.” Sociometry 35 (1972): 477-489.
In the first study, same and mixed sex pairs stood at a fixed distance either interacting or not interacting in the corridor of a university building. In the second, similar dyads stood conversing at varying interpersonal distances in a shopping mall. Observers recorded the number of times passerby passed through the dyad rather than going around it. Frequency of intrusion varied according to sex of dyad members, activity of the group, and distance apart. Groups standing within Hall’s “personal” distance were intruded upon less frequently.
238. Christensen, Dana; Farino, Amerigo; and Boudreau, Louis. “Sensitivity to Nonverbal Cues as a Function of Social Competence.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 4 (1980) : 146-156.
The hypothesis that sensitivity to nonverbal messages is an important component of social competence was tested employing 24 female subjects. Subjects were given the task of interviewing a confederate. They were instructed to change the interview topic if the questioning appeared to produce a discomfort in their partner. The confederate displayed a series of nonverbal cues indicating mounting tension while responding to certain questions. Two measures of sensitivity to the cues were obtained: (1) how quickly the subject changed the interview topic in response to the cues, and (2) how many nonverbal cues the subject reported observing. The findings indicated that low-competence subjects reported having observed as many of the nonverbal messages as the high-competence subjects but failed to respond to them. No difference was found between groups for level of anxiety experienced during the interaction.
239. Christenson, Michael Allen. “Aspects of Visual Behavior in Relation to Sex of Subject and Expressions of Affect.” Ph.D. dissertation, Washington State University. 1973. 39 pp. (Order N. 73-38)
Male and female subjects were videotaped discussion happy, angry, or sad experiences with an interviewer, and the proportion of time spent in eye contact and with eyes downcast was recorded. Subjects of both sexes looked at the interviewer more during discussions of happy and angry experiences than of sad experiences.
240. Churchill, Don W., and Bryson, Carolyn Q. “Looking and Approach Behavior of Psychotic and Normal Children as a Function of Adult Attention of Preoccupation.” Comprehensive Psychiatry 13 (1972) : 171-177. Illus.
Fourteen psychotic (schizophrenic or autistic) institutionalized children were observed during three ten-minute periods in each of three conditions: attentive adult present, preoccupied adult present (seated sideways, working on a puzzle), or no adult present. Although the apparent intent of the play behaviors of the psychotic children differed substantially from that of normals, no difference was noted ingaze behavior of the tendency to keep the adult in sight. Thus this study holds no support for the idea that adult attention creates avoidance behavior in psychotic children.
241. Ciampa, Bartholomew J. “Edu-Kinesics: The Non-Verbal Language of the Classroom.” Educational Technology 12 (1972) : 62.
Teachers should become aware of the effect of their nonverbal communication on their students.
242. Cicourel, Aaron V. “Gestural Sign Language and the Study of Non-Verbal Communication.” In The Body As A Medium of Expression, edited by J. Benthall and T. Polhemus, pp. 195-232. London: Allen Lane, 1975.
The authors contend that the principles that organize visual information and visual imagery for the deaf are not readily available to hearing persons because the structure of gestural sign language is relatively unknown and so is not a good resource for understanding context-sensitive nonverbal information among the hearing. This article focuses on the task of making available a formal normative system for organizing information on nonverbal communication embedded in the deaf sign language. A sign language and its facial and bodily movements can provide a formal language organization comparable to oral-auditory language.
243. Ciolek, Matthew T. “Spatial Arrangements in Social Encounters: An Attempt at a Taxonomy.” Man-Environment Systems 8 (1978) : 52-59.
Comparing existing notation systems for proxemic relationships, the author offers diagrams and notations of two- and three-person group arrangements and provides data on group formation comparisons of three Australian cultures: Australians of Canberra, Enga, and Muragin.
244. Ciolek, Matthew T. “Spatial Behavior in Pedestrian Area.” Ekistics 45(1978): 120-122. Illus.
Based on the author’s doctoral research, this is a brief report of pedestrian spatial paths, eight physical and social factors or criteria for them, and pattern interaction in narrow spaces.
245. Ciolek, T.M. “Human Communication Behavior: A Bibliography.” Sign Language Studies 6 (1975) : 1-64.
A provisional checklist of references to the use of gestures, postures, bodily contact, spacing, orientation, facial expressions, looking behavior, and appearance in the course of face-to-face interactions. Approximately 600 items.
246. Ciolek, T.M.; Elzinga, R.H.; and McHoul, A.W., eds. “Selected References to Coenetics, the Study of Behavioral Organization of Face-to Face Interactions.” Sign Language Studies 22 (1979) : 1-74.
This bibliography of 600 items dealing with coenetics, the study of face-to-face interaction, is prefaced by a commentary by Adam Kendon on current issues and trends in the field. Criteria for inclusion in the bibliography were a focus on some aspect of the way in which face-to-face interactions are accomplished, the use of recorded examples of actual events, and a concern with observable, “surface” features of behavior. Some works from neighboring disciplines were included to place the study of coenetics within context, and the bibliography includes an index with 22 subject headings.
247. Clark, Virginia P.; Escholz, Paul A.; and Rosa, Alfred F., eds. Language: Introductory Readings, 2nd edition. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1977. 532 pp. Illus.
This college-level reader has an extensive section on kinesics and proxemics including chapters such as “Space Speaks” by Edward T. Hall, “Learning to Read Gestures” by Gerard I. Nierenberg and Henry H. Calero, and “Communication by Gesture in the Middle East” by Leo Hamalian.
248. Clarke, Jack F. “Some Effects of Nonverbal Activities and Group Discussion on Interpersonal Trust Development in Small Groups.” Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University. 1971. 156 pp. (Order No. 71-18,955)
The author set out to discover whether a combination of nonverbal activities and group discussion increases interpersonal trust in initial phases of a group. Evidence is presented that it furthers the group’s trust no more than does simple discussion.
249. Clinkscales, Marcia J. Montgomery. “Black and White Nonverbal Dyadic Behavior and Attraction.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Denver. 1975.
Thirty pairs of undergraduates males of the same racial background (white/white or black/black) were videotaped for an analysis of their nonverbal behavior and patterns of interpersonal attraction. Among several results the study showed that certain head and facial movements were descriptive of the white pairs in contrast to specific bodily movements (described as orientation and rocking movements), which were characteristic of Black dyads. (from author’s abstract)
250. Clore, Gerald L.; Wiggins, Nancy Hirschberg; and Itkin, Stuart. “Gain and Loss in Attraction: Attributions from Nonverbal Behavior.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975) : 706-712.
Four videotapes of a “get acquainted” conversation between a role-playing couple were prearranged to convey female warmth or coldness by manipulation of the females’ nonverbal behaviors. The tapes were spliced to convey four attraction effects: warm-warm, warm-cold (loss condition), cold-warm (gain condition), and cold-cold. Three hundred thirty-eight subjects viewed one of the four tapes and rated the couple’s reaction to each other as well as their own reactions to the female. Additionally, subjects completed attribution ratings of both individuals on such traits as attractiveness, nervousness, warmth, dominance, and confidence. Attraction gainloss effects were noted only in attributions of the male’s attraction to the female and thus were probably due to the attributions of affective responses to the male.
251. Clynes, Manfred. Sentics: The Touch of Emotions. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977. Illus.
The author defines “sentics” as the study of genetically programmed dynamic forms of emotional expression; the result of brain processes which determine the way we perceive and express emotion. The way he measures these “sentic” forms is disarmingly simple. Subjects are given stimulus words for specific emotions and asked to press a button connected to a computer that measures the pattern of downward and lateral movements. Clynes demonstrates how each emotion has a distinctive curve and rhythm in effect isolating motor rhythm correlates of primary emotions. He explores these sentic forms in movements, tone of voice, perception rates, and even classical music; and discusses implications for therapy and communication.
252. Coates, Brian; Anderson, Elizabeth P.; and Hartup, William W. “Interrelation in the Attachment Behavior of Human Infants.” Developmental Psychology 6 (1972) : 218-230.
Behaviors such as visual regard, touching, and proximity were examined in 10-, 14-, and 18-month-old infants, particularly in relation to momentary separation from the mother.
253. Cobb, Lynne Seaborg. “Infant Response to Gaze and Face Direction.” Ph.D. dissertation, Purdue University. 1979. 151 pp. (Order No. 7926355)
A study of infants’ ability to discriminate discrepancies in gaze and face direction using a “habituation/recovery” method.
254. Coger, L., and Pelham, S. “Kinesics Applied to Interpreter’s Theatre.” Speech Teacher 24 (1975) : 91-99.
This article examines some recent research in kinesics and discusses, in particular, findings by Ekman and Friesen on rules of display, Mehrabian on the physical dimensions of emotion, and Scheflen on posture. Applications of the work of these authors by actors and directors of interpreter’s theatre are suggested in order to enhance the portrayal of attitudes and emotions with the spoken text.
255. Cohen, Akiba A. “The Communicative Function of Hand Illustrators.” Journal of Communication 27 (1977): 54-64.
In this exploration of the function of hand illustrators, 144 undergraduates were instructed to give directions to locations that varied in complexity under three conditions: face-to-face, over an intercom, and face-to-face with practice. The number of illustrators was measured and found, as expected, to be greatest in the face-to-face condition. However, results also gave support for an encoding more than a decoding function of illustrators.
256. Cohen, Akiba A., and Harrison, Randall P. “Intentionality in the Use of Hand Illustrators in Face-to-Face Communication Situations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28 (1973) : 276-279.
Twenty-four male students in a communications course had the task of giving four sets of directions to a female (supposedly a new secretary). Two sets were given directly (face-to-face), and two sets were given over an intercom. Subjects unknowingly were videotaped throughout, and their hand movements were counted when the hand gestures were judged to be related to what the subject was saying. More hand ilustrators were used in the face-to-face situation than in the intercom situation.
257. Cohen, Bertram D., and Rau, John H. “Nonverbal Technique for Measuring Affect Using Facial Expression Photographs as Stimuli.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 38 (1972) : 449-451.
Fifty hospitalized and 50 nonhospitalized female patients diagnosed as depressives were shown 41 facial expression photographs with two tasks to complete. In the first task patients were asked to complete the sentence “this face looks . . .” with an adjective that best described the “mood,” “emotion,” or “feeling” portrayed on each face. Then the women were asked to pick from the 41 photographs the picture “that best looks like you feel right now.” Among the results it was found that, the more depressed the subject, the more depressive was the picture chosen.
258. Cohen, Lynn Renee. “An Inquiry into the Use of Effort/Shape Analysis in the Exploration of Leadership in Small Groups: A Systems View.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. 1975. 290 pp. (Order No. 75-27,391)
Using the Effort/Shape system in the analysis of small groups, it was found that the movement profile of one member mirrored the movement profile of the group as a whole at the time that the person was the most “salient” member of the group. Groups were found to differ in specific effort and shape combinations and in specific relationships between effort and shape qualities. Effort/Shape Analysis is recommended as a precise means of describing group climate or emotional tone.
259. Cohler, Bertram G.; Grunebaum, Henry U.; Weiss, Justin L.; Gamer, Enid; and Gallant, David H. “Disturbance of Attention Among Schizophrenic, Depressed, and Well Mothers and their Young Children.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 18 (1977) : 115-135.
The paper reports the findings of a study of the disturbance of attention as measured by the Embedded Figures Test and Continuous Performance Task for a group of 40 psychotic mothers (26 schizophrenic and 14 depressed), a matched group of well mothers, and the children, age five to six, of all the mothers. Schizophrenic mothers did not perform on the EFT as well as the others at a level approaching significance. Controlling for intelligence, there were no significant relationships between mothers and children in any group on the measures of attention. However, the children of psychotically depressed mothers showed the greatest impairment of intelligence and made errors on the EFT significantly more times than the children of schizophrenic or well mothers.
260. Colaiuta, Victoria Bernadette. “Effects of Eye Contact on WAIS Performance.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of South Dakota. 1973. 32 pp. (Order No. 73275-27)
In this study no significant differences were found between performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and various eye contact patterns established during testing.
261. Cole, James K., ed. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1971. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1971. 304 pp.
The book contains three chapters on nonverbal communication. Albert Mehrabian’s paper, “Nonverbal Communication,” reviews research done on facial and vocal expressions, hand gestures, postures and positions, the relationship between nonverbal and implicit verbal behaviors, and multichannel communication, that is, inconsistent versus consistent messages. The chapter “Visual Interaction: The Glances of Power and Preference” by Ralph Exline describes empirical studies based on the assumption that eye contact is one of the nonverbal processes used to define the power and preference aspects of a relationship. The chapter “Universals and Cultural Differences in Facial Expressions of Emotion” by Paul Ekman presents four experiments with conclusive evidence that there are universal facial expressions of emotion.
262. Collett, Peter. “Training Englishmen in the Non-Verbal Behaviour of Arabs: An Experiment on Intercultural Communication.” International Journal of Psychology 6 (1971) : 209-215.
Ten Arab men and 20 Englishmen participated in the first study. As experimental subjects (ES), ten Englishmen received a training program instructing them in specific Arab nonverbals, while ten control subjects (CS) received unstructured material on the Arab world. Then each Arab met and talked with an ES and a CS. This was videotaped, and an event recorder was used to record specific nonverbal behaviors included within the training program. Afterward, the Arabs made sociometric choices between the CS and ES Englishmen they had met. This experiment was repeated having Englishmen meet CS or ES Englishmen trained in the same way. Significant differences in the Arab experiment were found in interpersonal distance, looking time, and mean length of look. Sociometrically, the Arabs preferred Englishmen who behaved like themselves, but no such distinction was found in the English-English experiment.
263. Collett, Peter; and Marsh, Peter. “Patterns of Public Behaviour: Collision Avoidance on a Pedestrian Crossing.” Semiotica 12 (1974) : 281-299. Illus.
Pedestrians were observed crossing at Oxford Circus in London where, when the light changes, one phalanx of pedestrians is forced to find their way past the other. About four hours of videotapes were examined for collision avoidance behavior. Males and females were significantly different (p<.001) on the “pass index,” with males oriented “open” or towards and females “closed” or away from the passer. While most men who were out-of-step performed open passes, most of the women who were out-of-step performed closed passes, (p<.02). More women than men drew one or both of their arms across their bodies when passing another person, (p<.001). Significantly more women than men were carrying something, but the sex difference for arm cross in passing remained, even controlling for this factor. More passers drew one or both arms in front of them when effecting a closed pass. Significantly more women than men crossed themselves when effecting open or neutral passes. The type of pass by women and men was independent of the sex of the person being passed. The type of pass performed by one person was, with the exception of men aged 25-34, unrelated to the age of the other passer.
264. Collins, O., and Collins, June M. “Research on the Interaction Problem: A Brief Review.” In Interaction and Social Structure, edited by O. Collins and J.M. Collins, pp. 38-56. The Hague: Mouton, 1973.
This chapter traces the Chapple-Arensberg Formulation of the interaction process. Eliot D. Chapple and Conrad M. Arensberg had isolated interaction as a field of study that permitted them precise definition of interaction based on observable behavior. A group of researchers advanced their work by supporting the paradigm with empirical data.
265. Collis, G. M., and Schaffer, H.R. “Synchronization of Visual Attention in Mother-Infant Pairs.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 16 (1975) : 315-320.
Studying the degree to which mothers visually monitor their baby’s gaze, the investigators placed 16 mother-infant pairs in a room and instructed each mother to keep the child on her knee. Visual fixations lasting longer than 0.3 seconds were counted through frame-by-frame film analysis. Infants predominantly gazed at toys which were out of reach, while mothers usually gazed at infants. When both focused on their toys they usually attended to the same one. Mothers tended to focus quickly on what their infants gazed at, a finely timed pattern which, according to the authors, helps them establish synchrony with their infants.
266. Comer, Ronald J., and Piliavin, Jane A. “The Effects of Physical Deviance upon Face-to-Face Interaction: The Other Side.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 23 (1972) : 33-39.
Thirty physically handicapped males with disabilities affecting their legs participated in this study of handicapped-normal dyadic interaction. A nonhandicapped confederate wore a leg brace during interviews with half the subjects and appeared normal with the remaining group of handicapped subjects. The results showed that physically handicapped subjects interacting with a normal confederate ended the interaction sooner; portrayed greater motoric inhibitions; showed less smiling behavior; and maintained less eye contact with the confederate. Contrary to prediction, they maintained a greater distance with the handicapped confederate.
267. Comstock, Tamara. New Dimensions in Dance Research: Anthropology and Dance-the American Indians. New York: CORD, New York University, 1974. 353 pp.
This fine collection of articles includes most of those presented at the Third Conference on Dance Research. The focus of the conference was to gain an understanding of the role of dance in a society and to review anthropological research tools applicable to dance, including field study, linguistic concepts, choreometrics, and kinesics. The conference was scheduled to coincide with the Yaqui Indian holy week and made use of their rituals to expose participants to some of the research techniques being discussed. This volume moves through dance ethnology, dance as a part of the nonverbal and expressive behaviors of a culture, linguistic parallels of dance, and dance as it demonstrates and symbolizes the world-view and myth-ritual complex of a society.
268. Condon, John C., and Yousef, Fathi S. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs Merrill, 1975. 306 pp.
Among chapters describing cultural differences in rituals, social events, values, languages, and so on, there is a 24-page chapter on nonverbal communication across cultures. It includes discussion of digital versus analogical modes of expression, taboos, “activity orientations,” and status differences.
269. Condon, William S. “Multiple Response to Sound in Dysfunctional Children.” Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 5 (1975) : 37-56.
Condon reviews his findings on self-and interactional synchrony, the synchronous entrainment of body movement with sound, and then discusses the results of the microanalysis of the movements of 25 dysfunctional children in response to sound. Seventeen of these children were severely dysfunctional (autistic-like, retarded, victims of cerebral palsy, or anoxic at birth), and eight had less severe reading problems. The analysis revealed systematic delays of response varying from one-half to a full second, as if the children were responding to “delayed sound.” In one case of retardation the child could synchronize with the movement of others but consistently responded to sound 16 frames late. Condon posits a continuum of severity in what appears to be a perceptual dysfunction that locks the children into an unreal world.
270. Condon, William S. “An Analysis of Behavioral Organization.” Sign Language Studies 13 (1976) : 285-318.
Condon discusses his seminal research from the point of view of the organization of behavior. Units of behavior identified through microanalysis are “forms of order” by which body parts move simultaneously in relation to each other. Examples of selfsynchrony and interactional synchrony are discussed.
271. Condon, William S. “A Primary Phase in the Organization of Infant Responding Behaviour.” In Studies in Mother-Infant Interaction, edited by H.R. Schaffer, pp. 153-176. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
The author discusses the microanalysis of behavior as an ethology of “information processing.” The ability of the human being to track the structure of incoming sounds as revealed by the synchronization of listener’s movement with the sounds has been reported in infants as early as the first day of life. This synchronization of behavior within 50 milleseconds is discussed as an early stage in the discrimination/cognition process. The article includes a discussion of the multiple response to sound and inability to habituate of an infant who had been anoxic at birth.
272. Condon, William S. “The Relation of Interactional Synchrony to Cognitive and Emotional Processes.” In The Relationship of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication, edited by M.R. Key, pp. 49-65. The Hague: Mouton, 1980.
This is a theoretical discussion of the structure of behavior and the nature of human communication revealed by the author’s microanalytic study of interaction. “Interactional synchrony,” or the synchronization of a listener’s movement with the structure of incoming speech, is discussed as the organizational interface of the person with the world. This orderly processing of the order of the world appears to have broken down in autistic-like children whose behavior is marked by asynchrony, multiple entrainment to sound, and multiple orienting responses. Because of the profound participation in another’s life that interactional synchrony reveals, the author argues that interaction affects the inner lives of the interactants.
273. Condon, William S., and Sander, Louis W. “Neonate Movement is Synchronized with Adult Speech: Interactional Participation and Language Acquisition.” Science 183 (1974) : 99-101.
The synchronization of neonate movement with the articulated patterns of human speech was observed through the microanalysis of sound films in 16 infants as young as 12 hours of age. Implications for the linguistic/kinesic precursors of language acquisition are discussed.
274. Conroy, Joseph III, and Sundstrom, Eric. “Territorial Dominance in a Dyadic Conversation as a Function of Similarity of Opinion.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (1977) : 570-576.
Male subjects with similar or dissimilar opinions worked in dyads on a cooperative task while one partner was a guest in the residence of the other. Results of an analysis of speech patterns from the taped sessions showed that dissimilar pairs talked more, but among similar pairs the visitor talked more. This was also true for instances of simultaneous speech when one member deferred to the other. The findings are interpreted as indications of territorial dominance among dissimilar pairs and of a “hospitality factor” among similar pairs.
275. Cook, Mark. “Gaze and Mutual Gaze in Social Encounters.” In Nonverbal Communication: Readings with Commentary. 2nd edition, edited by S. Weitz, pp. 77-86. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
Different methods of recording gaze behavior, typical findings of sex and individual differences in gaze behavior, gaze patterns in psychopathology, the actual unsteadiness of “study” gaze, anthropological and ethological notes on gaze, and studies of when and how long people look are topics covered in this interesting overview of gaze research.
276. Cook, Mark. Perceiving Others: The Psychology of Interpersonal Perception. New York: Methuen, 1979.
277. Cook, Mark. “The Relation Between Gaze and Pausing Examined Afresh.” In Temporal Variables in Speech: Studies in Honour of Freda Goldman-Eisler, edited by H.W. Dechart and M. Raupach. The Hague: Mouton, forthcoming.
278. Cook, Mark, and Smith, Jacqueline M.C. “The Role of Gaze in Impression Formation.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 14 (1975) : 19-25.
A study involving 72 male and female university students to determine the effects of three levels of gaze (normal, continuous, averted) and four combinations of sex of interactants (MF, MM, FF, FM) on the subjects’ impressions of confederates. Impression formation was measured by subjects’ ratings of confederates on semantic differentials and by subjects’ free descriptions of confederates in response to certain questions asked by the experimenter. In the continuous gaze condition, female confederates were rated less favorably than males. But in the normal gaze condition they were rated more favorably. Overall, male confederates were rated as more potent than their female counterparts, regardless of gaze. For subjects who mentioned gaze in their free descriptions, confederates were rated lower in potency, like-dislike, and easy to get on with in the averted gaze condition than in the normal gaze condition. Analysis of adjectives used in free description showed confederates to be perceived differently in certainty, fearfulness, and pleasantness according to their gaze behavior.
279. Cooper, Cary L, and Bowles, David. “Physical Encounter and Self-Disclosure.” Psychological Reports 33 (1973) : 451-454.
Two encounter groups in which contact exercises were used were compared to a control encounter group that did not involve these exercises. Physical contact was found to significantly increase self-disclosure after the initial group session.
280. Coss, Richard G. “Reflections on the Evil Eye.” Human Behavior 3 (1974) : 16-22. Illus.
The importance of the symbol of the eye throughout history is examined. The apparent tendencies for prolonged eye contact to intimidate and for gaze aversion to avoid aggression are considered by presenting research on animals and humans.
281. Costonis, Maureen. “Case Study of a Puzzling Child: Using the Synchronous Movement Profile as an Evaluation Tool.” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 8 (1974) : 162-176.
The author developed a Synchronous Movement Profile to test the abilities of a disturbed child. The test was scored during dance-therapy sessions and showed as high as a 60.5 percent increase in synchronous movement within 10 minutes. The child also achieved a 40 percent decrease in the amount of time necessary to become synchronous. The profile establishes synchrony relative to body part and time units. A sample profile is included.
282. Costonis, Maureen. “How I Learned to Wall-Bounce and Love it!” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 9 (1975) : 143-155.
After a brief clinical description of the movement patterns of an atypical child, the author discusses movement observation systems, especially Effort/Shape and Eshkol-Wachmann. The Movement Range Sampler, devised by Constonis and related to the Eshkol-Wachmann system, measures the range of each moving body part and its path in space. A dance-therapy session with the above-mentioned atypical child is rated with the MRS, as well as scored for movement synchrony. The effectiveness of dance therapy in altering bizarre movement patterns for brief periods is noted.
283. Costonis, Marueen Needham. Therapy in Motion. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1978. 278 pp.
A collection of readings on dance therapy and nonverbal communication, this book includes several case studies, articles on approaches to dance therapy, discussions of movement and personality, body awareness, and therapeutic change. There are also reprinted articles by Ray Birdwhistell (“The Frames in the Communication Process”), Adam Kendon (“Movement Coordination in Dance Therapy and Conversation”), and Martha Davis (“Movement Characteristics of Hospitalized Psychiatric Patients”).
284. Coutts, Larry M., and Ledden, Maribeth. “Nonverbal Compensatory Reactions to Changes in Interpersonal Proximity.” Journal of Social Psychology 102 (1977) : 283-290.
Forty female undergraduates had initial interview sessions followed by a second session in which the interviewer increased, decreased, or maintained the same faceto-face seating distance as in the first session. Subjects looked and smiled at her less when she moved closer. They looked and smiled at her more, leaned forward, and oriented themselves directly towards her when she moved farther away. These compensatory reactions are interpreted as attempts to restore “previous intimacy equilibrium.”
285. Coutts, Larry M. and Schneider, Frank W. “Visual Behavior in an Unfocused Interaction as a Function of Sex and Distance.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11 (1975) : 64-77.
This study investigated visual behavior of ten female, ten male, and 20 mixed-sex dyads in an unfocused (waiting room) situation. Results showed that amounts of visual behavior decreased with time and increased with interpersonal distance. Gaze behavior did not significantly vary by the sex of the looker, but females were looked at more than males. Female dyads accounted for more glances than any other type of dyad. Mutual gaze accounted for only 1 percent of interaction time.
286. Coutts, Larry M., and Schneider, Frank W. “Affiliative Conflict Theory: An Investigation of the Intimacy Equilibrium and Compensation Hypothesis.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976) : 1135-1142.
In this study of dyads discussing thematic apperception test cards, friends exhibited more smiling and mutual gaze than strangers. Notably, when one member reduced looking at her partner as instructed, this did not result in a compensatory increase in the immediacy behaviors of the other. It was concluded that the parameters of behavioral compensation need clarification.
287. Cozby, Paul C. “Effects of Density, Activity, and Personality on Environmental Preferences.” Journal of Research in Personality 7 (1973) : 45-60.
In this study of 74 female undergraduates, results show that the type of activity is a factor in whether high or low density is preferred as well as personal space preferences.
288. Cranach, Mario von, and Vine, Ian, eds. Social Communication and Movement: Studies of Interaction and Expression in Man and Chimpanzee. New York: Academic Press, 1973. 489 pp. Illus.
This excellent book is a compilation of articles based on presentations at a Working-Group Meeting on Nonverbal Communication sponsored by the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology in 1969. It is an ethological analysis of various forms of nonverbal behavior, as well as a discussion of methodologies and research problems. A. Kendon, J. van Hooff, I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. Vine, and N. Frijada have contributed articles. The topics explored are chimpanzee behavior, deafand-blind-born children’s expressions, facial-visual signals, pupil dilation, and facial expression. A section on concepts, methods, and strategies includes papers by M. von Cranach, and H. Ellgring.
289. Crapanzano, Vincent. “The Hamadsha.” In Scholars, Saints and Sufis edited by N.R. Keddie, pp. 327-348. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1972.
Within a rich and interesting report on the background, beliefs, and practices of the Hamadsha, a Moroccan religious brotherhood, the author describes trance rituals and the movements which accompany them. Certain of the trance rituals done by the men involve self-mutilation with no experience of pain. In some dances women and children may go into trance.
290. Creider, Chet A. “Towards a Description of East African Gestures.” Sign Language Studies 14 (1977) : 1-20.
Facial expression, gestures, and body movements of four Kenyan tribal groups are described in detail and compared to nonverbal expressions in Africa, Latin and North America.
291. Critchley, MacDonald. Silent Language. London: Butterworth, 1975. 231 pp. Illus.
Gesture as a modality of communication and of self-expression constitutes the principal theme of this engaging book. In this treatment gesture augments, elaborates, intensifies, expands, modifies, maximizes, emphasizes, or in some way alters the reference-function of audible speech. The author explores the neurology of gesture and examines sign language and gestures of primitive and contemporary communities. A survey of gesture in relation to the arts of rhetoric, pantomime, and dance—as well as a section devoted to everyday conversation—rounds out this inclusive work.
292. Cross, Crispin P. Interviewing and Communication in Social Work. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974. 176 pp.
This work contains a chapter on nonverbal aspects of the social-work interview including discussion of gaze, facial expression, gesture, proxemics, and paralinguistics.
293. Crouch, Wayne W.; Frye, Jerry K.; Brindle, Bette; and Wong, Peter C. “The Syracuse Person Perception Test: A Measure of Responsiveness to Facial and Verbal Cues.” In Graphical Representation of Multivariable Data, edited by P.C. Wong. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
294. Cunningham, Michael R. “Personality and the Structure of the Nonverbal Communication of Emotion.” Journal of Personality 45 (1977) : 564-584.
In laboratory studies involving videotapes of subjects expressing elation or depression in three different ways, consistency in nonverbal encoding ability was found between voice and face channels (and to a lesser degree body channels) both when subjects were aware and unaware of their expressions. Women subjects showed greater decoding ability. Notably, the ability to encode was negatively correlated with the ability to decode messages. Encoding ability related to measures of extroversion and emotional responsiveness.
295. Cuny, Xavier. “Les commandements gestuels: Une expérience avec des ouvriers étrangers débutants.” Bulletin de Psychologie 26 (1972-73) : 847-852.
The hypothesis of this study, that task-related gestures such as turning a button or pulling a lever can be readily transposable to so-called ‘motivated’ gestures meant to command others to perform the tasks, was tested with a group of foreign laborers taught gestural commands to signal crane-runway operators. The results show that one can obtain a set of “spontaneous” gestural commands from beginning foreign laborers who have not learned the formal code and that these are related to taskoriented gestures. The authors conclude that codes should not go against this “spontaneous” gesture symbolism. Written in French.
296. Cupchik, Gerald Chaim. “Expression and Impression: The Decoding of Nonverbal Affect.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin. 1972. 115 pp. (Order No. 73-7184)
Female and male senders were videotaped reacting to four types of affect-evoking slides. Subjects judging the category of slide from the sender’s reaction were more accurate in judging gross aspects of affect (negative or positive) than in a more specific task of differentiating between the slides. Females and high-expressive males were more accurate than low-expressive males in the specific judgment among the four slides, and high-expressive subjects were more accurate than low-expressive subjects in all conditions.
297. Dabbs, James M. Jr. “Physical Closeness and Negative Feelings.” Psychonomic Science 23 (1971) : 141-143.
Fifty-six pairs of male subjects argued or talked in a large or very small room. Palmar sweating was measured, as was the subject’s attitude toward his partner and their discussion. Results showed that subjects in the small room had generally more negative feelings but tended to suppress them. Arguing aroused more negative feelings than talking did. Subjects were less attentive to the topic when talking than when arguing, and in the small room than in the large room. Palmar sweating decreased the most over time in the small room arguing condition.
298. Dabbs, James M. Jr. “Sex, Setting, and Reactions to Crowding on Sidewalks.” American Psychological Association Proceedings 7 (1972) : 205-206.
Three hundred twenty-one male and 322 female pedestrians were observed in Atlanta, Georgia, just before Christmas. Subjects, standing alone at traffic lights, bus stops, in the open or near a wall, were approached by a stranger who stood close to them. Results showed male experimenters caused more movement than females at bus stops. Female subjects moved more than males at traffic lights.
299. Dabbs, James M. Jr.; Fuller, James P.H.; and Carr, Timothy S. “Personal Space When ‘Cornered’: College Students and Prison Inmates.” American Psychological Association Proceedings 8 (1973) : 213-214.
Sixty male and female college students and 73 prisoners participated in this study. Both sets of subjects approached or were approached by another subject (in the case of the college students) or by the experimenter (in the case of the prisoners). Subjects stopped or told the person approaching them to stop at a distance comfortable for conversation. Prison inmates maintained greater interpersonal distance than college students. The prisoners also approached the experimenter more closely than they allowed him to approach them. This difference between approaching and being approached was not observed among the college students. All subjects maintained greater distance in the corner than in the center of the room, and this was especially true of the prisoners.
300. Daniell, Robert J., and Lewis, Philip. “Stability of Eye Contact and Physical Distance Across a Series of Structured Interviews.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 39 (1972) : 172.
An investigation of the stability of eye contact and physical distance as diagnostic indicators. In a sample of 36 male and female students, half were randomly assigned to be interviewed three times by the same interviewer, and half were assigned to be interviewed by different interviewers. Physical distance and eye contact were observed and measured from behind a one-way mirror. Findings support the stability of eye contact and physical distance as predictors of personality.
301. Danziger, Kurt. Interpersonal Communication. Elmsford, New York: Pergamon Press, 1975. 238 pp.
The book contains a chapter entitled “Nonverbal Communication” in which the author discusses proxemics, posture, gaze direction, paralanguage, movement, and inconsistency among channels of communication. The author emphasizes that the concepts of channels and codes are of central importance in the process of interpersonal communication.
302. Daubenmire, M. Jean; Searles, Sharon; and Ashton, Carol. Communicative Interaction: Methodology and Analysis. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Research Foundation, 1977. 158 pp. Illus.
This is a report of the five-year study of patient-nurse interaction conducted by members of the Ohio State School of Nursing with the participation of computer systems analysts. The authors set out to devise a very complex multivariable recording of verbal and nonverbal interaction in hospital settings. They adapted terminology from various kinesic, proxemic, and movement notation approaches to communication analysis, devising an elaborate coding system for analyzing videotapes that could be computer analyzed. This monograph reviews relevant literature, discusses theoretical issues, and describes the method of data collection and recording procedures and data reduction. The development of the “synchronic notation system,” its reliability, and validity are presented. “Synchronology” and a time-process model of human interaction are discussed with particular reference to dyadic communication. The authors define a concept “convergence” and its relation to synchrony and describe specific interaction examples of “eye duration” activity and convergency inactivity patterns.
303. Daubenmire, M. Jean; Searles, Sharon S.; and Ashton, Carol A. “A Methodological Framework to Study Nurse-Patient Communication.” Nursing Research 27 (1978) : 303-310.
The purpose of the authors’ research was to develop a methodology for examining the complexity of the interactional processes that occur among nurses and patients in a hospital setting. Extensive videotaped, time-series data of patient-health care personnel interactions involving four patients were collected 16 hours a day from admission to discharge. The communicative interaction patterns among nurses and patients were then examined using the methodologie framework, “synchronology.” This approach provides a structure for in-context description and analysis of the complex verbal and nonverbal interaction patterns.
304. Daubenmire, M. Jean; White, Judith L.; Heinzerling, Kathryn; Ashton, Carol A.; and Searles, Sharon S. Synchronics: A Notation System for the Quantitative and Qualitative Description of Presenting Behaviors. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Research Foundation, 1977. 217 pp. Illus.
The results of a six-year project on nurse-doctor-patient interaction, this manual presents the coding system for verbal and nonverbal presenting behaviors, what behaviors occur and how. It is designed to transcribe videotape interactions onto 21 channels at few-second intervals of time for later computer analysis. Although based on studies of interactions in hospital recovery and private rooms, it is applicable to a vast range of naturalistic settings and represents one of the most advanced and ambitious attempts to merge ethnographic description with computer systems. The nonverbal descriptors range from proxemic variables to Laban-related terms for describing movement qualities.
305. D’Augelli, Anthony R. “Nonverbal Behavior of Helpers in Initial Helping Interactions.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 21 (1974) : 360-363.
Divided into groups of eight, each of 168 undergraduates participated in a fourminute verbal helping interaction with another group member. Two trained observers tallied helper nonverbal behaviors (smiling, nodding, looking down, and gaze aversion) and scored verbal responses for understanding, emotional honesty, and acceptance. Group participants rated the helper on interpersonal traits. Smiling and nodding were related to observers’ ratings of the helpers’ interpersonal skills. Smiling related to the participants’ perception of the helper as “warm.” Nodding related to both judges’ and helpees’ perceptions of the helper as understanding, warm, accepting, and not set in his/her ways.
306. Davenport, W.G.; Brooker, Gail; and Munro, Nancy. “Factors in Social Perception: Seating Position.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 33 (1971) : 747-752.
Five female college students were photographed five times each occupying different positions at a rectangular table. From these slides, 220 female high school students consistently chose the occupant at the head of the table as having higher ratings of talkativeness, persuasiveness, leadership, self-confidence, friendliness, intelligence. The occupant at the head of the table was also seen as contributing most to the group’s discussion.
307. Davis, Anne. “Micro-Ecology: Interactional Dimensions of Space.” Journal of Psychiatric Nursing and Mental Health 10 (1972) : 19-21.
The author discusses the importance of territoriality and personal space in human behavioral patterns and cites some relevant research.
308. Davis, Flora. Inside Intuition: What We Know about Nonverbal Communication. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. 223 pp.
A lively and engaging introduction to the study of nonverbal communication, this book is addressed to the lay reader while reporting the work of the major researchers in the field, often from personal interviews. Topics include gender signals, courting behaviors, body movement, and greeting behaviors, based on interviews with Ray L. Birdwhistell, Albert E. Scheflen, and Adam Kendon; facial expression and eye behavior, based on interviews with Paul Ekman and Ralph Exline; and proxemics, incorporating an interview with Edward T. Hall. “The dance of the hand,” posture, communication by smell and touch, and developmental perspectives from the womb through childhood are also treated. William Condon, Paul Byers, and Eliot Chapple have contributed to chapters on the rhythmic dimension of interaction; Martha Davis and Irmgard Bartenieff to a discussion of Effort-Shape analysis and personal dimensions in nonverbal communication; and Erving Goffman to a discussion of behavior and the public order.
309. Davis, Flora. Eloquent Animals: A Study in Animal Communication. New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1978. 223 pp.
Subtitled “How chimps lie, whales sing, and slime molds pass the message along,” this popular book on animal communication is readable, scholarly, and interesting. There are chapters on the signing chimps and gorillas, reports of research on insect, bird, and fish communication, whale songs, and dog communication. The book concludes with a chapter on human nonverbal communication and a discussion of the debate on the relationship of animal communication and human language.
310. Davis, Martha. Understanding Body Movement: An Annotated Bibliography New York: Arno Press, 1972. 190 pp. (Reprinted by Indiana University Press, forthcoming.)
Over 900 annotated books and articles are included in this bibliography of literature on the psychology and anthropology of body movement. The predecessor of the present bibliography, it has an extensive subject index and historical review of nonverbal communication from 1872 to 1971.
311. Davis, Martha, adv. ed. Body Movement: Perspectives in Research Collection. New York: Arno Press, 1972.
A series of reprints of rare or hard-to-obtain works on the psychology and anthropology of movement, selected for their historical and innovative value. The series includes Thus Speaks the Body: Attempts Toward a Personalogy from the Point of View of Respiration and Postures by Bjorn Christiansen (1963); Behavior Development in Infants by Evelyn Dewey (1935); Evolution of Facial Expression, two accounts by R.J. Andrew and Ernst Huber; Facial Expressions in Children with monographs by Ruth W. Washburn, Rene Spitz, and Florence L. Goodenough; A Psychology of Gesture by Charlotte Wolff (1948); and Research Approaches to Movement and Personality with monographs by Philip Eisenberg, Martti Takala, and Irmgard Bartenieff and Martha Davis.
312. Davis, Martha, adv. ed. Body Movement: Perspectives in Research Collection. New York: Arno Press, 1975.
Three volumes added to this reprint series in 1975 are anthologies of selected papers. Anthropological Perspectives of Movement includes a study of culturally determined gesture styles, an analysis of Navaho movement patterns in work, social, and personal activity, description of 100 common postural patterns, a review of literature on dance and culture, a discussion of proxemics research and notation, and an annotated bibliography. The reprinted works ranging from 1942 to 1963 are by Flora L. Bailey, Edward T. Hall, Francis Hayes, Gordon W. Hewes, Gertrude P. Kurath, and Weston La Barre. The reprinted articles of Psychoanalytic Perspectives of Movement span a period from 1921 to 1966 and include: S. Ferenczi, “PsychoAnalytical Observations on Tic”; Sandor Feldman, “The Blessings of the Kohenites”; Ernst Kris, “Laughter as an Expressive Process”; Margaret Mahler, “Tics and Impulsions in Children”; Felix Deutsch, “Analytic Posturology”; Trygve Braatoy, “Psychology vs. Anatomy in the Treatment of ‘Arm Neuroses’ with Physiotherapy”; Bela Mittlemann, “Psychodynamics of Motility”; and Judith Kestenberg, “Rhythm and Organization in Obsessive-Compulsive Development.” Recognition of Facial Expression is an anthology of articles ranging from the 1920s to early 1960s. The articles are “The Recognition of Facial Expressions of Emotions” by Arthur Jenness, which is a review of literature on emotion and facial expression; “The Judgment of Facial Expression” by J. Frois-Wittmann; “The Interpretation of Facial Expression in Emotion” by Carney Landis; “The Understanding of Facial Expression of Emotion” by Nico H. Frijda; “Three Dimensions of Emotion” by Harold Schlosberg; and “The Psychology of Expression” by Sylvia Honkavaara, which is a lengthy article including several experimental studies on the perception of emotion.
313. Davis, Martha. Towards Understanding the Intrinsic in Body Movement. New York: Arno Press, 1975. 132 pp. (Body Movement: Perspectives in Research Series)
This work begins with a review of the kinesic literature, including Darwin, Reich, Scheflen, and Birdwhistell, among others. The author has compiled a detailed glossary of movement terms taken from three notation systems. She then compares sample kinesic descriptions of 17 key researchers in the movement glossary terms. She further discusses the authors’ parameter choices, the relationship between a movement and its significance, and proposes ideas for integrating areas of movement research. Included are a complete description of the glossary references and a selected bibliography of notation systems.
314. Davis, Martha. Methods of Perceiving Patterns of Small Group Behavior. New York: Dance Notation Bureau Press, 1977. 75 pp.
Four observation methods—R. Barker’s Psychological Ecology, R. Bales’ Interaction Process Analysis, A. Scheflen’s Context Analysis, and I. Bartenieffs EffortShape Analysis—are discussed in terms of units of behavior, perception of relatedness between group members, patterns of behavior units, and methodological and theoretical aspects. The four methods are then compared by applying each to the same therapeutic interaction in this monograph on problems and possibilities for observing and recording group interaction.
315. Davis, Martha; Weitz, Shirley; and Culkin, Joseph. “Sex Differences in Movement Style: A Multivariate Analysis of Naive and Laban-Based Ratings.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 3 (1980) : 4-11.
Six raters using a Laban-based rating scale assessed movement patterns of pairs of graduate students from videotapes played without sound. A factor analysis yielded six factors: Expressiveness-Animation, Reserved-Friendly, Male-Female Presentation, Status, Self-Touch, and Disengagement. Comparisons of these ratings with “naive” judgments of the same tapes indicated judgments of “Openness” for females were predicted by high ratings on Expressiveness-Animation and low ratings on Disengagement.
316. Davis, Martha, ed. Interaction Rhythms: Periodicity in Communicative Behavior. New York: Human Sciences Press, forthcoming.
This is a collection of papers on research in face-to-face interaction from microanalyses of mother-infant synchrony to cycles of dyadic conversation recurring over several weeks. Based on the proceedings of the First Annual Research Conference of the Institute for Nonverbal Communication Research in New York City, the volume includes dialogue between participants as well as formal papers. An introduction by Martha Davis, preface by Albert E. Scheflen, and overviews by Paul Byers, Adam Kendon, and Conrad M. Arensberg explore the theoretical issues implicit in the empirical studies presented in this four-part anthology. Part One focuses on microanalyses of behavior such as mother-infant interaction rhythms and has chapters by Eliot D. Chapple, William S. Condon, Beatrice Beebe et al ., Daniel Stern, and Judith Duchan. Part Two concentrates on rhythm in paralanguage with presentations by Madeleine Mathiot and Elizabeth Carlock, Joseph Oliva, and an extensive overview of cross-cultural variation of rhythm style by Alan Lomax. Part Three includes papers on the temporal dimension in dyadic conversation, particularly its role in impression formation, by Stanley Feldstein, Cynthia L. Crown, and Aron W. Siegman and Mark Reynolds. Part Four deals with units of interactive behavior lasting several minutes to many hours such as posture-mirroring between professors and students, transactions at a store counter, and conversation during long-term isolation. Its authors include Marianne LaFrance, M. Jean Daubenmire and Sharon Searles, Donald P. Hayes and Loren Cobb, Judson P. Jones and Walburga von Raffler-Engel.
317. Dean, Larry M.; Willis, Frank N.; and Hewitt, Jay. “Initial Interaction Distance Among Individuals Equal and Unequal in Military Rank.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) : 294-299.
Interaction distances for 562 pairs in military settings were recorded as conversations commenced. Interactions initiated by subordinates with superiors were characterized by increased distance which varied according to discrepancy in rank. With superior-initiated conversations, initial distance was not significantly different from that taken with peers.
318. Deaux, Kay. The Behavior of Women and Men. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1976. 168 pp. Illus.
This book presents research on behavioral sex differences for the lay reader. Eye contact, facial expression, smiling, touching, proxemic, and approach behaviors are discussed in chapters on communication styles, aggression, and the basis of attraction.
319. Deets, Carol Anne. “Nonverbal Communications of Emotions.” Ed.D. dissertation, Indiana University. 1971. 96 pp. (Order No. 72-6701)
Subjects identified emotions and their intensity for six emotions videotaped by four actors, facially, vocally, gesturally, facial-vocally, and gestural-vocally. Among the results it was found that the facial-vocal mode was the most accurate and gestural the least accurate for recognizing emotion, and that the primary emotions are more easily recognizable than the complex emotions.
320. DeHavenon, Anna Lou. “Superordinant Behavior in Urban Homes: A Video Analysis of Request-Compliance and Food Control Behavior in Two Black and Two White Families Living in New York City.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1978. 421 pp.
The dissertation defines and demonstrates a materialist approach to the collection and analysis of cross-cultural data using videotape as the primary data base. A distinction is made between materialist or nonsemantic data procedures—whose units are necessarily pancultural and comparative, observer-oriented and defined and verified in terms of their physical properties by more than one observer—and idealist or semantic data procedures, whose units are not defined and verified in terms of their measured physical properties, and whose units may or may not be pancultural and comparative, observer-oriented and defined and verified by more than one observer. Statistical analyses of behavioral observations showed a greater ageranking of compliance and food behaviors in the black than in the white families, (from the author)
321. De Long, Alton J. “Kinesic Signals at Utterance Boundaries in Preschool Children.” Semiotica 11 (1974) : 43-73. Illus.
Pairs of four- and five-year-old boys were videotaped discussing the blocks they’d been given. Their behavior was then examined in terms of eight basic movements across eight parts of the body in a search for kinesic signals of the intention to stop talking. Termination of utterances was signaled by a configuration of movement, some of which was mandatory and some of which was optional. The mandatory termination movements were a leftward movement of the head, and a downward shift, which can occur in the head, hands or arms, either individually or in any combination. Three termination-of-utterance positions were found: post-verbally, usually immediately following utterance termination; final word position; and penultimate word position. There was an increase in activity as utterance termination approached. The baseline of right ward movement was deviated from significantly only during the medial segment of pausal utterances. The significant increase in kinesic activity that occurred toward the ends of utterances occurred only in the case of other-directed speech, not in self-directed utterances.
322. De Long, Alton J. “Yielding the Floor: the Kinesic Signals.” Journal of Communication 27, 2 (1977) : 98-103.
Videotapes were analyzed as to how eight preschool children signal their intent to exchange listener/speaker roles. Eight types of body movement were recorded across eight body parts, with movements of the head down and head and body parts leftward occuring in one of three points: after the last word, on the final word, and on the penultimate word, each point involving a different combination of downward and leftward movement. Additional data analysis revealed that these signals occurred only during other-directed speech, not in the case of self-directed speech.
323. Delph, Edward W. The Silent Community: Public Homosexual Encounters. Beverly Hills, California: Sage, 1978.
324. DePaulo, Bella M., and Rosenthal, Robert. “Age Changes in Nonverbal Decoding Skills: Evidence for Increasing Differentiation.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 25 (1979) : 145-150.
Six hundred thirty-two children and adults were administered the PONS (Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity) to determine if age differences occur in decoding different types of nonverbal communication cues. Sensitivity to nonverbal cues was found to be related to age.
325. DePaulo, Bella M.; Rosenthal, Robert; Eisenstat, Russell A.; Rogers, Peter L.; and Finkelstein, Susan. “Decoding Discrepant Nonverbal Cues.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978) : 313-323.
This article reports on the Nonverbal Discrepancy Test, a videotaped test of accuracy in decoding discrepant auditory and visual nonverbal cues. In most of the test items the affects communicated in the audio and visual modalities are discrepant. Results of the test showed that the judgment of subjects was more affected by video than audio cues, and that there was more video primacy for women than for men. Discrepant messages involving the face had more video primacy than those involving bodily cues, as did judgments involving positive affect compared with those involving dominance. In very discrepant messages there was more audio primacy compared with slightly discrepant stimuli.
326. DePaulo, Bella M.; Rosenthal, Robert; Finkelstein, Susan; and Eisenstat, Russell A. “The Development Priority of the Evaluative Dimension in Perceptions of Nonverbal Cues.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 3 (1979) : 164-171.
Researchers who have attempted to map the basic structure of broad psychological domains (such as interpersonal behavior) have invariably pointed to the importance of the evaluative dimension. It was predicted that sensitivity to such a salient dimension would develop prior to sensitivity to other important but apparently weaker dimensions, such as dominance-submissiveness. The predicted developmental trend was supported in a study of nonverbal decoding. When judging pairs of emotional cues communicated by the face or body and by the tone of voice, younger subjects, compared to older ones, were more likely to notice discrepancies in the degree of expressed positivity than in the degree of expressed dominance.
327. DePaulo, Bella M.; Zuckerman, Miron; and Rosenthal, Robert. “Humans as Lie Detectors.” Journal of Communication 30 (1980) : 129-139.
People are able to detect lie telling in others with a better-than-chance probability. Factors affecting detection success include the controllability and spontaneity of the nonverbal cues. Women’s superiority at detecting deception through nonverbal cues decreases as the controllability decreases. Persons who test as either socially anxious or self-monitoring are skilled at detecting deception. Persons scoring high on scales rating beliefs in the complexity of human nature and Machiavellian personalities are adept at lying. Any deviation from a contextually normal nonverbal response promotes suspicion of deception.
328. Desor, J.A. “Toward a Psychological Theory of Crowding.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21 (1972) : 79-83.
Seventy graduate and undergraduate students were given scaled-down rooms and human figures and asked to place as many people as possible in the rooms without overcrowding them. Room area was constant, but architectural features varied according to partitions, linear dimensions, and number of doors. More people were placed in rooms with partitions. In a study varying room size, the mean density of figures placed in the smallest room was greater than in the medium or large room. More people were also placed in rectangular than in square rooms of equal area.
329. Deutsch, Robert, and Auerbach, Carl. “Eye Movement in Perception of Another Person’s Looking Behavior.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 40 (1975) : 475-481.
The first experiment compared accuracy and acuity of nine subjects’ perceptions of being looked at when observer’s eyes are moving and still. Head orientation affects judgments of gaze. In a second laboratory experiment evidence is presented that the eye movement pattern is taken as an indication of the observer’s intention.
330. DeVito, Joseph A. Communicology: An Introduction to the Study of Communication. New York: Harper & Row, 1978. 553 pp. Illus.
This college textbook has several brief “units” on nonverbal communication; its metacommunicational, contextual, and “packaged” nature, kinesics (in terms of emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators, and so on), proxemics and touch, group formation, and paralanguage.
331. di Carlo, Nicole Scotto “Analyse sémiologique des gestes et mimiques des chanteurs d’opéra.” Semiotica 9 (1973) : 289-317. Illus.
An investigation of the gestures and facial expressions of different opera singers in analogous situations and whether they use the same gestures as other singers and show recurrences in their own performances. The authors distinguish between communicative gestures, such as an angry frown, and gestures without communicative value, such as raising the eyebrows while emitting a high sound. They categorized singers as those who subordinate theatrics to singing (rated lower) and those who do not (rated higher). The results show that higher-rated singers do not use identical gestures and facial expressions in analogous situations. This disproves that there is a gestural “language” in opera singing that the public can rely on once they understand the code, according to the author.
332. DiCiurcio, Thomas Louis. “Perceived Mental Illnesss As a Function of Body Movement and Context.” Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Albany. 1975. 155 pp. (Order No. 75288-80)
It was suggested in this study that “irregular” body movement in an interviewee under certain conditions would lead perceivers to construe that person as mentally ill. To test this 232 perceivers viewed a 10-minute videotape and rated the interviewee on over 40 behavioral items.
333. Dietrich, Lawrence Bernard. “Effects of a Counselor’s Race, Sex, and Body Language on Black Clients’ Counselor Preference.” Ph.D. dissertation, George Washington University. 1977. 163 pp. (Order No. 77-25,535)
In this study of videotaped simulated counseling sessions there is evidence that race and sex are significant factors in preference of counselor, but a counselor’s body language may be more powerful.
334. Di Francesco, Gertrude Vilma. “Interaction Distance and Eye Contact in the Counseling Relationship.” Ed.D. dissertation, Lehigh University. 1977. 230 pp. (Order No. 78008-34)
Five hundred eighty-four college students rated four videotapes of counseling in teractions. Among the results are evidence that held eye contact is instrumental in conveying positive affect, and verbal and nonverbal messages seemed more congruent if the counselor maintained eye contact while expressing empathy.
335. Dil, Nasim. “Sensitivity of Emotionally Disturbed and Emotionally Non-Disturbed Elementary School Children to Meanings of Facial Expressions.” Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University. 1971. 196 pp. (Order No. 72-6768)
This research explores the relationship between encoding and decoding emotions in groups of normal and disturbed school children. Results showed that children showing disturbed behavior are less accurate in decoding and attribute more negative meanings to photographs of facial expressions.
336. Dil, Nasim. “Kinesics of Affective Instability.” Language Sciences 1 (1979) : 349-377.
Affective or emotional instability is defined here as imbalanced ways of communicating affects, whether lack of, overexpression, or inappropriately timed or sustained expressions. Following a discussion of kinesics and a theoretical paradigm of affective communication, the author describes three examples of interactions between a father and his mute daughter, and behavior of a “frightened child” and an autistic child.
337. DiMatteo, M. Robin; Friedman, Howard S.; and Taranta, Angelo. “Sensitivity to Bodily Nonverbal Communication as a Factor in Practitioner-Patient Rapport.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 4 (1979) : 18-26.
The relationship between physicians’ nonverbal sensitivity and the satisfaction of their patients was tested in two field studies. In the first study, 40 physicians were given a film test of nonverbal sensitivity (the PONS test) and were evaluated by their patients. The second study was a replication using 31 additional physicians. Most noteworthy for research in therapeutic interaction, the present studies contained three methodological advances: (1) the use of actual patients’ ratings of satisfaction with treatment, (2) the extension of research from psychological to medical settings, and (3) the use of a standardized test of nonverbal decoding skill. Physicians’ skill at reading the emotion conveyed through the nonverbal channel of body movement was found to be significantly correlated with their interpersonal success with patients in the clinical setting.
338. DiMatteo, M. Robin, and Hall, Judith A. “Nonverbal Decoding Skill and Attention to Nonverbal Cues: A Research Note.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 3 (1979) : 188-192.
A measure of differential preference for attending to three channels of nonverbal communication was developed, with which scores for differential attention to face, body, and voice tone were generated for 17 college subjects. These scores were correlated with subjects’ nonverbal decoding accuracy in the same three channels as measured by a standard test of decoding nonverbal cues. Significant positive relationships between channel preference and accuracy were found for the two video channels; no relationship was found for the audio channel.
339. Dinges, Norman G., and Oetting, Eugene R. “Interaction Distance Anxiety in the Counseling Dyad.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 19 (1972) : 146-149.
Male and female undergraduates rated anxiety associated with five dyadic interaction distances when told either that the context was a counseling one or given no instruction or “set” as to context. Females showed higher rates of anxiety than males and counseling-set subjects responded with more anxiety than no-set subjects. Anxiety scores across distances indicated that nearer (30 inches) and farther (88 inches) distances received the highest anxiety ratings.
340. Dittmann, Allen T. “Development Factors in Conversational Behavior.” The Journal of Communication 22 (1972) : 404-423.
Studies of listening responses (LRs) such as um’s, huh’s, and head nods in children are reported. Six children ages six to 12 years and eight subjects from 14 to 35 were videotaped in conversation. There were marked individual differences as well as increases in LRs with age. The social and linguistic functions of LRs are discussed.
341. Dittmann, Allen T. Interpersonal Messages of Emotion. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1972. 232 pp.
The book contains chapters on communication theory with a brief overview of the mathematical theory of communication, channels of emotional messages, and research issues. Facial expressions, body movement, psychophysiological responses, kinesics, paralanguage, and language are some of the topics discussed.
342. Dittmann, Allen T. “The Body Movement-Speech Rhythm Relationship as a Cue to Speech Encoding.” In Studies in Dyadic Communication, edited by A.W. Siegman & B. Pope, pp. 135-151. New York: Pergamon Press, 1972.
Dittmann makes the distinction between body movements which he calls “fidgeting” and which are an expression of emotional states, and body movements which occur during and after hesitations or “non-fluencies” in speech. To him these are a manifestation of the encoding process of speech as the speaker is making decisions on how and which of his thoughts he should put into words. Listener responses such as head nods, which also occur at hesitation points in speech, are discussed.
343. Dittmann, Allen T. “Style in Conversation.” Semiotica 9 (1973) : 241-251.
A book review of David Efron’s 1941 work on gesture among immigrant Jews and southern Italians in New York, published in a new edition as Gesture, Race and Culture.
344. Ditts, Robert; Grinder, John; Bandler, Richard; Bandler, Leslie C.; and DeLozier, Judith. Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Vol. I, The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Cupertino, California: Meta Publications, 1980. 284 pp. Illus.
Within this extensive and rather technical introduction to Neuro-Linguistic Programming, there is an extensive discussion of how various nonverbal behaviors indicate preferred or momentary “representational systems” (various forms of vision, audition, kinesthesis, and olfaction/gustation which in this model are the basic elements on which patterns of behavior are formed). The “accessing cues” discussed are eye movements, breathing patterns, posture, gestures, and tempos of speech and motion. The interpretations given are very detailed and subtle.
345. Dodd, Carley H. “Nonverbal Communication Perspectives to Cross-Cultural Communication.” In Perspectives on Cross-Cultural Communication, by C.H. Dodd, pp. 53-60. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1977.
This brief chapter includes a discussion of cultural variation in kinesics, proxemics, and time, and gives interesting examples of cultural nonverbal miscommunications between Americans and Russians, Latin Americans, and Vietnamese.
346. Donaghy, William C. Our Silent Language: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Dubuque, Iowa: Gorsuch Scarisbrick Publishers, 1980. 53 pp. Illus.
A good introduction to nonverbal communication, this booklet describes communication within the framework of systems theory as a multichannel process. Each chapter is prefaced by learning objectives to guide study. Chapters deal with nonverbal impression formation, emotional expression, expression of interpersonal attitudes, and conversational behavior. The final chapter suggests techniques for improving sensitivity to nonverbal cues. Revealing photographs complement the text.
347. Dorch, Edwina, and Fontaine, Gary. “Rate of Judges’ Gaze at Different Types of Witnesses.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 46 (1978) : 1103-1106.
Two black and two white judges, 52 defendants, 53 civilian witnesses, and 34 police witnesses were involved in this study. The frequency of judges’ gaze at witnesses was recorded. Results indicate there was a higher rate of gaze by white judges than black judges; defendants received highest rate of gaze, followed by civilians, then police witnesses; and that black judges looked more at white witnesses, while white judges looked more at black witnesses. Interestingly, there was a positive correlation between rate of gaze at defendant and the fine received if found guilty.
348. Dosamantes-Alperson, Erma. “The Creation of Meaning Through Body Movement.” In Clinical Psychology: Issues of the Seventies, edited by A.I. Rabin, pp. 156-166. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Press, 1974.
Through a brief historical review of established and humanistic clinical psychological approaches, the author develops the idea of felt and symbolic levels of experience as the underpinnings for verbal self-consciousness. She discusses the role that premature verbal communication can play in inhibiting self-awareness. Focusing on “process-oriented” movement therapists and “authentic movement,” she describes the transformation, within the therapeutic context, of an ongoing, continuous flow of energy and incipient body movement to felt-body movement, to imagery, and, finally, to verbal awareness and communication.
349. Dosamantes-Alperson, Erma. “The Function of Empirical Methodology on Outcome and Process Studies of Movement Therapy.” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 8 (1974) : 86-90.
A brief article on the designing of research verification for dance-movement therapy. On a basic level, a good introduction for clinicians and students.
350. Dosamantes-Alperson, Erma. “The Intrapsychic and the Interpersonal in Movement Therapy.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 3 (1979) : 20-31.
Two modes of experience, receptive and active, are related to muscle tension, movement preferences, and psychological process. Specific movement observations are given for each state, and several clinical examples are cited.
351. Dougherty, Frank E.; Bartlett, Edmund S.; and Izard, Carroll E. “Responses of Schizophrenics to Expressions of the Fundamental Emotions.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 30 (1974) : 243-246.
Thirty-two photographs depicting eight cross-culturally standardized emotional expressions were presented in random order to 54 women, 31 of them hospitalized schizophrenics. Subjects were measured for their ability to classify emotional expressions into a priori labeled categories and to recognize emotional expressions in a free response task. Normal subjects made significantly more accurate classification responses than schizophrenics on the categorization task. On the free response task, significant differences occurred primarily due to the schizophrenics’ high frequency of use of the enjoyment-joy category.
352. Doyle, G.A. “Behavior of Prosimians.” In Behavior of Nonhuman Primates: Modern Research Trends, edited by A.M. Schrier and F. Stollnitz, pp. 155-353. New York: Academic Press, 1974. Illus.
This exhaustive examination of the behavior of prosimians not only surveys their ecology and general behavior (territory and home range, activity rhythms, sleeping and grooming behavior, ingestive behavior, and locomotion), but it examines the theme of “Senses and Communication” (olfactory communication, vocal communication, visual communication). This in-depth study also includes highly researched sections on their courtship and mating behavior. Additional topics covered include the social groupings, intelligent behavior, and play of prosimians.
353. Draughon, Margaret. “Duplication of Facial Expression: Conditions Affecting Task and Possible Clinical Usefulness.” Journal of Personality 41 (1973) : 140-150.
The experiment examined the process of duplicating facial expressions under two conditions: with the aid of a mirror and without the aid of a mirror. Subjects attempted to duplicate their own and “other” facial expressions under the two conditions from photographs taken of them while talking to an experimenter about drugs. The study confirmed that a person can learn to duplicate facial expressions with the aid of a mirror, that there was a deterioration of duplication in the nonmirror condition, that high-anxious people duplicate better in the nonmirror condition, and that lowanxious people perform better in the mirror condition.
354. Driscoll, John Burton. “The Effects of a Teacher’s Eye Contact, Gestures, and Voice Intonation on Student Retention of Factual Material.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi. 1978. 91 pp. (Order No. 79051-19)
In this study of 80 tenth graders listening to a lecturer, results indicated that the students in the “eye contact-gestures-dynamic voice intonation” groups had significantly better retention scores than students in “no eye-contact-no gesture-monotone” voice groups.
355. Dropsy, Jacques. Vivre dans son corps. Paris: EPI, 1973.
The author describes his methods of therapeutic work to obtain the conscious integration of the psychomotor being. Among a number of topics he analyzes body image and self-knowledge, space and body form, body rhythms, and respiration, and the force and energy of the person. Written in French.
356. Dubner, Frances S. “Nonverbal Aspects of Black English.” Southern Speech Communication Journal 37 (1972) : 361-374.
Citing a lack of communication between blacks and whites in the United States, the author points out the need for an understanding of the nonverbal aspects of black communication patterns. She reviews research from the areas of anthropology, linguistics, sociology, and communication, and presents a chart of the major types of nonverbal behaviors with examples from black culture. These are sign language, such as the Black Power salute; kinesics including eye behavior, self-representation and “style”; iconics; paralinguistics; tactile/cutaneous communication such as handshakes; olfactory and gustatory communication; chronemics; proxemics; and aesthetics.
357. Duck, Steve, ed. Theory and Practice in Interpersonal Attraction. New York: Academic Press, 1977. 367 pp. Illus.
In addition to numerous references throughout this book to the role of physical appearance in sexual and nonsexual attraction processes, a review of recent literature by Mark Cook entitled “The Social Skills Model of Interpersonal Attraction” explores the integral functions of nonverbal communication in social skills. In particular, the importance of gaze and postural cues for the regulation and maintenance of interactions; paralanguage, proximity, and facial expression for formation of expectations, and nonverbal factors in translation and response are discussed with references to cultural differences. Eye contact is also discussed in leek Ajzen’s essay, “Information Processing Approaches to Interpersonal Attraction,” while aspects of touch as the “proximal receptor” are examined in “Predictability, Power and Vulnerability in Interpersonal Attraction” by Peter Kelvin.
358. Dudeck, James E. “Developmental Study of Haptic-Tactual Perceptual Skill Utilization Among Sighted, Partially Sighted and Blind Children.” Ph.D. dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers. 1974. 109 pp. (Order No. 74-29,161)
Fifty-four children (of two age levels: about 7½ years and 11 years and three levels of sightedness: blind, partially sighted, and normally sighted) were given tasks involving haptic discrimination and recognition and tactual discrimination and recognition. A “significant second order interaction effect between age, sightedness, and task difficulty” was found.
359. Duke, Marshall P., and Mullens, Mary Colleen. “Preferred Interpersonal Distance as a Function of Locus of Control Orientation in Chronic Schizophrenics, Nonschizophrenics, Patients, and Normals.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 41 (1973) : 230-234.
Forty female mental patients, 20 of whom were schizophrenic, served as subjects. Twenty normal female nonprofessionals served as a control group. Subjects were asked to judge the comfortable distance of hypothetical interactants on the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale. Preferred distance, as measured by this scale, was greatest for schizophrenics, intermediate for nonschizophrenic patients, and least for normals.
360. Duke, Marshall P., and Nowicki, Stephen Jr. “A New Measure and Social Learning Model for Interpersonal Distance.” Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 6 (1972) : 119-132.
This article reviews previous concepts of personal space and interpersonal distance and analyzes existing measurement methods. Finding a lack of theoretical basis for prediction and understanding, the authors present a new method of measurement, the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance scale. Reliability, validity, and derivative studies are discussed.
361. Duke, Marshall, and Wilson, Jan. “A Note on the Measurement of Interpersonal Distance in Preschool Children.” Journal of Genetic Psychology 123 (1973): 361-362.
This study discusses the viability of an adapted version of Duke and Nowicki’s (1972) Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale (CID) for use with preschoolers. CID involves a replica of a round room with doors. The child is to imagine standing in the center and being approached by various people who are to be “stopped” at the distance the child prefers.
362. Dulicai, Dianne. “Nonverbal Assessment of Family Systems: A Preliminary Study.” International Journal of Arts in Psychotherapy 4 (1977) : 55-62.
A diagnostic scale utilizing effort/shape analysis of movement was devised to analyze the nonverbal interactions of two groups of four families over an 18-month period. The two groups were divided between those families who had never sought treatment and families who had sought help for only one member. The data were rated in two ways. Nonverbal behaviors such as “gesture blocked” or “bonding-behavior-parent” were scored numerically, and how these behaviors affect the family system was subjected to a pattern analysis. The results confirmed the hypothesis that the two groups scored differently and that conflictual messages and disturbed functioning can be detected through assessment of nonverbal behaviors and their “deviations.”
363. Duncan, Starkey D. Jr. “Interaction During Speakng Turns in Dyadic, Face-to-Face Conversations.” In Organization of Behavior in Face-to-Face Interaction, edited by A. Kendon, R. Harris, and M.R. Key, pp. 199-213. The Hague: Mouton, 1975.
Examples from two 19-minute segments of dyadic conversations are used to illustrate the author’s approach to segmenting behavioral units in terms of “speakingturn interacting units” and speaker and listener turn-taking, and continuation signals and listener “back-channel” behavior.
364. Duncan, Starkey Jr.; Brunner, Lawrence J.; and Fiske, Donald W. “Strategy Signals in Face-to-Face Interaction.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979) : 301-313.
The notion of a “strategy signal” is introduced and defined as an action that is not an interaction organization signal, has an effect on the probability of occurrence of a subsequent action, is consistent across participants, and causes an effect which is one of legitimate alternatives rather than invariable. Eight dyadic conversations were observed and provided the basis for a discussion of speaker head direction, smiling, and speaker turn cues as strategy signals.
365. Duncan, Starkey Jr.; and Fiske, Donald W. Face-to-Face Interaction: Research, Methods, and Theory . Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977. 361 pp.
One of the most complex and detailed volumes on the vicissitudes of systematically assessing conversational behavior, this work includes an excellent overview of face-to-face interaction research and discussion of the problems of definition, coding, and reliable analysis. Careful description of the authors’ project on interaction assessment, the variables coded, and method of data analysis are accompanied by reports of individual and sex differences in brief interactions and specific patterns, such as turn-taking, back-channel, and smile and gaze behaviors. Interestingly, in the research project used as illustration there were few correlations between extensive self-descriptive scores and the conversational acts. Chapters devoted to transcriptions of interaction, the “turn system,” the “dynamics of interaction,” and “interaction strategy” reflect the authors’ early research interests and their meticulous approach to method and metatheory.
366. Dunham, Randall B. and Herman, Jeanne B. “Development of a Female Faces Scale for Measuring Job Satisfaction.” Journal of Applied Psychology 60 (1975) : 629-631. Illus.
The Kunin Faces Scale of male faces portraying different degrees of happiness is used to obtain nonverbal responses to job satisfaction inquiries. An equivalent scale using female faces was developed and tested by correlating verbal responses. Analysis of the response of 103 employees revealed no correlation differences between subjects using same or opposite sex faces scales.
367. Dunkell, Samuel. Sleep Positions: The Night Language of the Body. New York: New American Library (Signet) 1977. 216 pp. Illus.
A psychotherapist’s analysis of the psychological significance of various sleeping positions and position relationships between partners. A popularized account written in an informal tone, it includes analysis of common and exotic positions and the details of smaller body part positions.
368. Dunning, Gail B. “The Identification and Measurement of Nonverbal Communication in the Counseling Interview.” Ed.D. dissertation, University of Nebraska. 1971. 104 pp. (Order No. 72-15,978)
Counseling students were trained in the use of an instrument to identify and measure their own nonverbal behaviors. Results showed that they could learn to use this instrument accurately in a short period of time, but that its use did not significantly affect their nonverbal behavior when compared with a control group.
369. Dychtwald, Ken. Body-Mind. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978. 298 pp. Illus.
The author attempts a definite and simple system of “body-mind reading and diagnosis” which draws on yoga and on the work of Reich, Lowen, Schutz, Rolf, Feldenkrais, Perls, Keleman, and Prestera. Throughout the book the author focuses on the emotional and psychological patterns underlying given body configurations. Chapters sequentially deal with different body parts (feet and legs, pelvis, abdominal region and lower back, chest cavity, shoulders and arms, neck, throat and jaw, face and head) in considerable detail. For example, a section on the eyes ranges from discussion of eye shape and placement, to iris and sclera diagnoses. Drawings illustrate integrated as well as problematic postures and conditions of body parts.
370. Dye, Joan Carol. “The Use of Body Movement to Facilitate Second-Language Learning for Secondary School Students: Listening and Speaking.” Ph.D. dissertation, New York University. 1977. 440 pp. (Order No. 78030-49)
Research to develop a teacher’s guide for using body movement to enrich secondlanguage learning is reported.
371. Eakins, Barbara Westbrook, and Eakins, R. Gene. Sex Differences in Human Communication. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin, 1978. 217 pp. Illus.
An excellent college textbook which is replete with documented examples of the subtleties of sex differences in everyday interactions. Following a discussion of theories of the origins and causes of sex differences, the authors detail the linguistic differences in male and female speakers, turn-taking, timing and paralinguistic variations, voice tone and amplitude differences, and the power of labels, titles, and certain terms to delineate gender. They stress the cultural bases of gender communication differences and the status and power issues implicit in the behavior. There is an extensive chapter on sex differences in nonverbal communication, particularly eye contact, facial expression, posture, gesture, touch, and proxemics. They conclude with suggestions for changing sexist communication patterns.
372. Eberts, E.H., and Lepper, Mark R. “Individual Consistency in the Proxemic Behavior of Pre-School Children.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) : 841-849.
Preschool children’s proxemic behavior was explored in two experiments. A study of the relation of eye contact and success or failure on a task to the interaction distance children kept with an adult experimenter showed that increase in experimenter eye contact significantly increased the interaction distance, while task success or failure did not affect it. Children approached female experimenters more closely than male experimenters. Subjects’ spatial behavior was observed one month later during “free-play.” The results showed that interaction distances were quite consistent across situations in interactions with both adults and children.
373. Eco, Umberto. “Bibliographica Semiotica.” VS: Quaderni di Studi Semiotica 8/9 (1974) : Special issue (in Italian).
374. Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1976. 354 pp.
The author describes this work as an exploration of the theoretical possibility of a general semiotic theory to account for all types of signs and includes within the semiotic field the research areas of zoosemiotics, tactile communication, kinesics, and proxemics. Eco discusses the case of nonintentional signs such as certain gestures and body movements, which raise the possibility of intention and thus deception. The relation of nonverbal gestures to deictic verbal signs is discussed, and a compositional analysis of kinesic pointers is given. The question of the semantic content of gestures is addressed as well as the existence and structure of semiotic systems not based on language.
375. Edney, Julian J. “Human Territoriality.” Psychological Bulletin 81 (1974) : 959-975.
This article is a review of the somewhat disjointed literature on human territoriality. It summarizes the theory and discusses definitions of the term and field of study. Various approaches and methodologies are evaluated. More recent experiments have focused on the relationship of dominance and aggressiveness with territoriality, territoriality in different age groups and settings, behaviors such as marking one’s own territory, individual and group territoriality, and placement of self or objects to enhance defense.
376. Edney, Julian J., and Jordan-Edney, Nancy L. “Territorial Spacing on a Beach.” Sociometry 37 (1974) : 92-104.
One hundred ten groups of people on a large beach were used as subjects. Interviewers approached the groups and asked a series of questions, including how they would assess the size and shape of their territory. The group’s size and sex composition were noted. Results showed group territories did not increase with group size, but space per person tended to decrease with group size. Females claimed significantly smaller territories than males. All-male groups estimated the capacity of the beach to be larger than did other groups. There was a significant relationship between group density and respondents’ occupational background for same-sex groups.
377. Edney, Julian J.; Walker, Carol A.; and Jordan, Nancy L. “Is There Reactance in Personal Space?” The Journal of Social Psychology 100 (1976) : 207-217.
Two studies were conducted to investigate the relationship between the psychological factors of “security,” “freedom,” and “control” as they relate to people’s reactions to the close proximity of others. Results indicate that the amount of personal space claimed by an individual is not necessarily related to the amount of space available. Further findings suggest that the underlying variable in determining personal spacing is more likely to be “control” than “freedom.”
378. Edwards, David J. A. “The Determinants of the Symmetry or Asymmetry of Social Orientation Schemata.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9 (1973) : 542-550.
Thirty male subjects were asked to place two male dolls to represent interactions in which levels of eye contact were expected to be symmetrical or asymmetrical. Results showed that asymmetrical interactions resulted in wider angles of orientation and the interactor seeking more eye contact was placed more directly facing the other figure.
379. Efran, Michael G., and Cheyne, James A. “Shared Space: The Co-operative Control of Spatial Areas by Two Interacting Individuals.” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 5 (1973) : 201-210. Illus.
One thousand two hundred fifty-six males and females on three different university campuses made up the subject sample. The authors examined the possibility that individuals can cooperatively control the space around themselves by varying their physical proximity to each other. In three separate experiments, confederates engaged in conversation in a public hall and varied the distances between themselves. The number of persons walking around or between them was recorded. When in closer proximity to each other at “personal distances,” a significantly smaller number of people passed between the confederates than when interacting from farther apart at “social distances.”
380. Efran, Michael G., and Cheyne, J. Allan. “Affective Concomitants of the Invasion of Shared Space: Behavioral, Physiological, and Verbal Indicators.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974) : 219-226.
Thirty-nine male Canadian students were subjects for the experiment. Dependent measures were the subject’s heart rate, expressive behavior rated from a videotape, and a self-report mood scale. Subjects were required to walk through a corridor between two conversants, past two conversants but not between them, or down a corridor in which confederates were replaced by inanimate objects. Subjects in the intrusion condition displayed more agonistic facial responses (frequency and duration of head and gaze down, eyes closed, eyes partially closed, and negative mouth gestures) and less positive mood ratings.
381. Efron, David. Gesture, Race and Culture. The Hague: Mouton, 1972. 226 pp. Illus.
Originally published in 1942, this book describes a naturalistic study of the gestures of Southern Italians and Eastern Jews in New York City. The author concludes that gestural behavior is related to sociopsychological factors. The appendix includes a dictionary with pictures of gestures. There is an introduction to this edition by Paul Ekman.
382. Eggen, Paul Duane. “A Comparison of Student Affect and Kinesic Behavior.” Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State University. 1972. 215 pp. (Order No. 72276-26)
One hundred eighty-one junior high and high school students were involved in this exploration of relationships between their nonverbal behaviors and attitudes toward their teacher and class.
383. Ehrlichman, Howard; Weiner, Susan L.; and Baker, A. Harvey. “Effects of Verbal and Spatial Questions on Initial Gaze Shifts.” Neuropsychologia 12 (1974) : 265-277. Illus.
This three-part study was designed to replicate K. Kocel and M. Kinsbourne’s experimental results correlating question type with direction of gaze shift. Using both camera and face-to-face encounters, two groups of adults answered original verbal, spatial, and neutral questions. The third group answered 40 of K. Kocel and M. Kinsbourne’s questions and 40 designed by the authors. Gaze shifts were scored one-to 12 (using a clockface scheme for direction of gaze) or noted as no contact (premature gaze shift), head down, head turn, closed eye, or stare. Spatial questions produced stares in all but the face-to-face encounter. Verbal questions produced more downward shifts in all conditions; however, this tendency was not seen specifically with Kocel and Kinsbourne’s verbal questions. Question type had no effect on direction of lateral gaze shift. Contradictions between these and previous test results may be due to subject variables or differences in verbal questions, but they indicate that gaze shift is not directly attributable to lateralization of hemispheric activity.
384. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. Love and Hate: On the Natural History of Behaviour Patterns. Trans. by Geoffrey Strachan. London: Methuen, 1971. 263 pp. Illus.
This clear and fascinating book describes the biological basis of sociability and aggression from an ethologist’s point of view. The author discusses the basic concepts of ethology and the comparative method and reports findings on inherited motor patterns in animals and humans (facial expressions, eye and body movements, dominance behaviors) from studies of blind-born children and cross-cultural comparisons, and on innate recognition schemes and learning dispositions. Universal and cultural manifestations of aggression are discussed as well as its biological advantages. Most interesting, however, are the author’s views on the biological bases of bonding and altruism, such as the infant schema as an innate releasing mechanism. The mother-child relationship is called the nucleus of the human community, and animal and cross-cultural examples are furnished to show that the behavioral patterns used to establish or strengthen social bonds and to keep groups together are borrowed from this relationship, including kissing, rubbing, embracing, grooming, and feeding. Greetings and festivals as social mechanisms are also discussed.
385. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus. “Les universaux du comportement et leur genèse.” In L’unité de l’homme: invariants biologiques et universaux culturels, ed. by E. Morin and M. Piatelli-Palmarini, pp. 233-245. Paris: Seuil, 1974.
The author reviews his position on the learned versus innate issue and gives examples of innate philogenetic behavior in man by presenting the results of his studies of facial expressions of deaf and blind-born children, as well as his cross-cultural study of the universality of the “eye-brow lash” greeting behavior. Written in French.
386. Eisenberg, Abne M., and Smith, Ralph R. Nonverbal Communication. Indianapolis, Indiana; Bobbs Merrill, 1975. 133 pp. Illus.
A textbook in the publisher’s speech communication series which surveys definitions, judgment of facial expression, the social function of nonverbal communication, and cross-cultural studies. It ends with a fairly extensive chapter of exercises in nonverbal communication.
387. Eisler, Richard M.; Hersen, Michel; and Agras, W.S. “Videotape: A Method for the Controlled Observation of Nonverbal Interpersonal Behavior.” Behavior Therapy 4 (1973) : 420-425.
Smiling and looking behavior of six married couples was noted by four observers during live observation, observation via a TV monitor, and videotape analysis. Interrater reliabilities for each system were more than 93 percent, justifying the use of videotape in assessing such behaviors.
The field’s become a fad. Too many investigators who are in too great a rush. . . . Most of what I see now in the journals is very trivial. There’s not the tradition of being a naturalist, of describing behavior carefully, of taking nature at its full complexity and working with that.
Paul Ekman quoted in an interview by Randall Harrison for The Kinesis Report 3 (Fall 1980) : 4.
388. Ekman, Paul, ed. Darwin and Facial Expression. New York:Academic Press, 1973. 273 pp. Illus.
An excellent book on facial expressions commemorating the centennial of Darwin’s classic work, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Each of the authors points out that, while modern methods of collecting data have shown Darwin to have made some faulty observations and deductions, research findings over the past hundred years tend to substantiate his original hypothesis. Each chapter presents Darwin’s ideas on the topic along with a critical integration of current findings. The chapter “Facial Expressions of Emotions in Non-human Primates” by Suzanne Chevalier-Skolnikoff elaborates on and confirms Darwin’s concept that human facial expressions evolved from those of man’s non-human primate ancestors. She takes into account advances in genetics and neurophysiology in her discussion on how the evolution of facial musculature and the nervous system is related to variations in facial expressions across different species. The chapter “Facial Expressions of Infants and Children” by William R. Charlesworth and Mary Anne Kreutzer presents a survey of studies on feral, institutionalized, and blind children which supports Darwin’s hypothesis that facial expressions are in part the result of innate factors. Evidence for the universality of some facial expressions in the human species is discussed in the chapter “Cross-Cultural Studies of Facial Expressions” by Paul Ekman. Each of the authors stresses the interplay between innate and environmental factors. The chapter “Darwin and the Representative Expression of Reality” deals eloquently with Darwin’s contributions to the history of ideas.
389. Ekman, Paul. “Movements with Precise Meanings.” Journal of Communication 26 (1976) : 14-26.
This article discusses “emblems,” as opposed to gesture “illustrators,” which have a direct verbal translation whose precise meaning is known and used deliberately to communicate with a specific person or group. Focusing on those which involve tools or bodily activities, the author examines differences in emblems among cultures, categories and iconicity of emblems, syntax within a string of emblems, age differences, and emblem appropriateness. Facial expressions of emotion were found to be universal among cultures, although emblems incorporating these expressions may vary by culture.
390. Ekman, Paul. “Facial Signs: Facts, Fantasies, and Possibilities.” In Sight, Sound and Sense., edited by T. Sebeok, pp. 125-156. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1978.
Distinguishing between static (structural), slow (occurring with age), rapid (momentary facial movements), and artificial (for example, glasses, cosmetics) sign vehicles for facial information. Ekman discusses the relation of the first three to determining personal identity, kinship, race and gender, temperament and personality, and beauty and sexual attractiveness. He also discusses these distinctions in terms of judging intelligence, emotion, mood, and the function of rapid facial movements as emblems, adaptors, illustrators, and regulators. He concludes with a brief discussion of how the face reflects age and previous emotional life.
391. Ekman, Paul. The Face of Man: Expressions of Universal Emotions in a New Guinea Village. New York: Garland STPM Press, 1980. Illus.
A collection of candid photographs of spontaneous facial expressions taken by Ekman is presented with captions explaining the context of each picture. There is an introductory chapter on his field research of universal facial expressions and a concluding chapter reviewing studies of facial expression in literate and preliterate cultures. (from publisher’s information)
392. Ekman, Paul; Brattensani, Karen A.; O’Sullivan, Maureen; and Friesen, Wallace V. “Does Image Size Affect Judgments of the Face?” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 4 (1979) : 57-61.
Whether the video-image of the face was larger than life or about one-fifth life size made no difference in observers’ judgments of emotions, attitudes, and personality traits.
393. Ekman, Paul, and Friesen, Wallace V. “Measuring Facial Movement.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 1 (1976) : 56-75.
A procedure has been developed for measuring visibly different facial movements. The Facial Action Code was derived from an analysis of the anatomical basis of facial movement. The method can be used to describe any facial movement (observed in photographs, motion picture film or videotape) in terms of anatomically based action units. The development of the method is explained, contrasting it to other methods of measuring facial behavior. An example of how facial behavior is measured is provided, and ideas about research applications are discussed.
394. Ekman, Paul, and Friesen, Wallace V. The Facial Action Coding System (FACS). Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1978. Illus.
Based on seven years of research, FACS is a method for objective description of facial movement. Measurement units are based on the anatomy of facial action. The authors have made available an “Investigator’s Guide to the FACS,” an instructional manual, film cartridges demonstrating facial actions, practice materials, scoring sheets, computer programs for coder reliability checks, and a final test of scoring ability as part of a package to be applied to sophisticated studies of facial expression.
395. Ekman, Paul; Friesen, Wallace V.; and Ellsworth, Phoebe. Emotion in The Human Face: Guidelines for Research and an Integration of Findings. New York: Pergamon Press, 1972. Illus.
An examination of the adult human face and emotion. In attempting to clarify conceptual terminology such as emotion, accuracy, generality, the authors articulate the complexities involved in researching this phenomenon. Two research approaches are compared: a component study (“. . . whether a certain position or movement of the subject’s face is related to some measure of the subject’s emotional state”) and a judgment study (whether observers who judge a subject’s face can agree about the subject’s emotion or can distinguish between facial behaviors emitted under different emotional states or circumstances). Methodological considerations and techniques for measuring facial behavior are reviewed, and guidelines are provided for future studies. The authors integrate findings from different experiments selecting seven major questions to resolve, such as what emotional categories can observers judge from facial behavior, can judgments of emotion from facial behavior be accurate, and what are the similarities and differences in facial behavior across cultures? The authors point out that, although many past experiments were either inadequate, utilized defective mehodology, or were misinterpreted, there remains considerable evidence that the face does not provide information regarding emotion. New questions are asked, such as whether there are particular facial behaviors which are not specific to any one emotion, but which may provide information about matters other than emotion, and is there a special class of facial behaviors which function as regulators to manage the back-and-forth flow of interaction during conversation.
396. Ekman, Paul; Friesen, Wallace V.; O’Sullivan, Maureen; and Scherer, Klaus. “Relative Importance of Face, Body, and Speech in Judgments of Personality and Affect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 (1980) : 270-277.
Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that the relative contribution of a channel (face, body, or speech) would depend on variables such as the attributed being judged or the type of social situation in which the behavior had occurred. The results from all three experiments show that no single channel predominates in judging other people. The study reveals the complexity of the phenomena in judging another person’s emotional state, attitude, or personality.
397. Ekman, Paul, and Oster, Harriet. “Facial Expressions of Emotion.” Annual Review of Psychology 30 (1979) : 527-554.
This literature review on facial expressions of emotions covers studies that have been made since 1970. Examining what has been discovered and listing some unasked or unanswered questions, the authors review studies which indicate the relevance of facial expression to research in developmental psychology, person perception, theories of emotion, and the neurophysiology of emotion.
398. Ekman, Paul, and Scherer, Klaus, eds. Handbook of Methods in Nonverbal Behavior Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming.
This is the proceedings of a 1979 Advanced Study Institute sponsored by NATO in London. Participants in this symposium included Adam Kendon, Erving Goffman, Robert Rosenthal, Mario von Cranach, Ralph Exline, and Howard Rosenfeld, J.R.M. van Hooff, Heiner Ellgring, and Candace West. Also presenting were P. Garrigues and Hubert Montagner, Rolf Kuschel, Jerry Boucher, P. Ricci-Bitti, and Harald Wallbott. (from pre-publication information)
399. Ellgring, Heiner. “Nonverbal Communication: A Review of Research in Germany.” The German Journal of Psychology, forthcoming.
In this very useful summary of German nonverbal communication literature of the 1960s and 1970s, Ellgring cites the major influences on this research as Ausdruckspsychologie (psychology of expression), ethology, and Anglo-American research. He discusses the theoretical approaches in current German research, emphasizing the expression and impression functions of nonverbal behavior, in the fields of psychology, ethology, and psychobiology, conversation analysis and linguistics. Research in the specific areas of facial expression, gaze, gesture and posture, speech and voice, and odor is discussed in terms of description, measurement, coding, and observer accuracy. Approaches to “multimodal analysis” and developmental perspectives in mother-infant research are described. Applications of research, teaching and research in universities, and future trends are also included. There is an extensive bibliography of works written in German.
400. Ellgring, J.H., and Cranach, Mario von. “Processes of Learning in the Recognition of Eye-Signals.” European Journal of Social Psychology 2 (1972) : 33-43.
The experiment reported here supports the need for pretraining observers of nonverbal communication, specifically those studying gaze behavior. It was found that the accuracy with which observers judged direction of gaze was very poor and improved substantially when they were given feedback. The improvement was independent of visual acuity, and no correlation was found between observer accuracy and such personality characteristics as extraversion or neuroticism.
401. Ellsworth, Phoebe C. “The Meaningful Look.” Semiotica 24 (1978) : 341-351.
This review of Gaze and Mutual Gaze by Michael Argyle and Mark Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976) specifies the theoretical ideas the reviewer considers are shared by most researchers of gaze behavior. In so doing, she suggests a theoretical basis for organizing the existing data on gaze and simplifies the theory. A discussion further elaborating the distinction between gaze as a channel and as a signal is included.
402. Ellsworth, Phoebe, and Carlsmith, J. Merrill. “Eye Contact and Gaze Aversion in an Aggressive Encounter.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 28 (1973) : 280-292.
Sixty-one male students participated in this study. The subjects, angered or not angered by a confederate, were allowed to deliver shocks to the confederate who looked at the subject, looked away, or varied gaze behavior in a random sequence. Comparing the subjects who interacted with a confederate who consistently either looked at them or looked away, the angered subjects shocked their victims less if the victim looked at them. Subjects interacting with a confederate who varied his behavior randomly, however, gave more shocks to the victim when he looked at them than when he did not.
403. Ellsworth, Phoebe; Carlsmith, J. Merrill; and Henson, Alexander. “The Stare as a Stimulus to Flight in Human Subjects: A Series of Field Experiments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21 (1972) : 302-311.
In a series of five experiments, 451 car drivers and pedestrians were used as subjects. Subjects were stared at or not stared at by experimenters at stop lights. Experimenters were either motorcycle riders pulling up next to subjects in cars, pedestrians staring into subjects’ cars, or pedestrians staring at pedestrians. Results showed that staring caused either pedestrians or cars to move more quickly away from the crosswalk.
404. Ellsworth, Phoebe, and Langer, Ellen. “Staring and Approach: An Interpretation of the Stare as a Nonspecific Activator.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1976) : 117-122.
Sixty unaccompanied female shoppers were confronted by a confederate who gave either a clear or an ambiguous story about needing help from them. This confederate either engaged the subject in eye contact or looked down. Observers rated the response of the subject with regard to helping the victim (confederate). There was no main effect for staring, per se, but more help was elicited with the clear story when the victim stared than with the ambiguous one.
405. Ellsworth, Phoebe C., and Ludwig, Linda M. “Visual Behavior in Social Interaction.” Journal of Communication 22 (1972) : 375-403.
The authors examine visual behavior from several aspects and review research on individual differences, sex differences, and personality differences, observer awareness of visual behavior, and its regulatory and information-seeking functions. The influence of visual behavior in interaction and its use as a source of attribution in relation to interpersonal attraction and involvement are also considered. The authors conclude with speculations about future research in the area.
406. Ellsworth, Phoebe, and Ross, Lee. “Intimacy in Response to Direct Ga ze.”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11 (1975) : 592-613.
One hundred male and 120 female undergraduate subjects were paired with a same-sex confederate. They experienced one of four experimental conditions (the confederate-listener responded either with continuous gaze, direct gaze contingent upon intimate statements, aversive gaze, and aversive gaze contingent upon intimate statements) as the subjects told personally revealing monologues. Direct gaze prompted intimacy among females and reticence among males. Gaze avoidance had opposite effects. Positive feelings, liking for the listener, and task satisfaction were reported by the females in the direct gaze condition.
407. Elman, Donald. “Eye Contact, Interest, and Arousal.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. 1973. 120 p. (Order No. 73266-04)
Two laboratory experiments using 64 male undergraduate subjects were performed in order to test hypotheses about the determinants of eye contact and psychological consequences of receiving different amounts of gaze.
408. Elman, Donald; Schulte, Duane C.; and Bukoff, Allen. “Effects of Facial Expression and Stare Duration on Walking Speed: Two Field Experiments.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 2 (1977) : 93-99.
Two field experiments investigated the generality of the stare-escape phenomenon for pedestrians. Experiment 1, conducted at a traffic intersection, failed to replicate a previous finding that being stared at leads to faster walking speed. One hypothesis that could explain this failure is that the relatively short staring times used in Experiment 1 were insufficient for subjects to attribute a threatening meaning to the stare. In Experiment 2, conducted at a library elevator, duration of staring was systematically varied—either two seconds or more than 15 seconds. Consistent with the attribution time hypothesis, subjects increased walking speed after a long stare but decreased it after a short stare. In both experiments a smile coupled with a stare appeared to neutralize the effects of a stare alone.
409. Elzinga, Rob H. “Nonverbal Communication: Body Accessibility Among Japanese.” Psychologia 18 (1975) : 205-211.
In this study of physical accessibility among the Japanese, a translation of Jourard’s body-contact questionnaire was administered to 175 Japanese students, 143 females and 32 males. Analysis of the data supported the cross-cultural applicability of the instrument. Japanese females were found to be touched more in all relationships than males. When the results were compared with those of Jourard for American subjects, they showed a striking contrast in physical accessibility between opposite-sex friends; the Japanese data showed relatively little physical contact in heterosexual relationships, while the American data revealed physical contact in such relationships to be two-to three-times that of other relationships.
410. Emde, Robert N.; Gaensbauer, Theodore; and Harmon, Robert J. Emotional Expression in Infancy. A Biobehavioral Study. Psychological Issues, Monograph 37. New York: International Universities Press, 1976. 198 pp.
In a section entitled “The Development of Emotional Expressions,” the authors discuss research on infant affects, the development of social smiling, stranger and separation distress, fussiness, and crying as part of a “biological message system.” They explore how these expressions differentiate into increasing levels of complexity.
411. Engebretson, Darold E. “Human Territorial Behavior: The Role of Interaction Distance in Therapeutic Interventions.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 43 (1973) : 108-116.
The author encourages therapists to attend to their patients’ proxemic behavior. He reviews human and nonhuman territorial actions and goes on to describe how attention to and manipulation of distancing can facilitate therapy.
412. Erickson, Frederick. “Review of ‘Context Analysis of a Family Interview’ Film by Christian Beels and Jane Ferber, produced by Jacques Van Vlack and Ray Birdwhistell.” American Anthropologist 76 (1974) : 731-732.
This is a review of two reels of film illustrating the “natural history” method for “context analysis” developed by Ray Birdwhistell and Albert Scheflen. The first reel contains the data, a family therapy interview, while the second reel contains a visual introduction to context analysis, using this therapy film and the postures of the adults in it as illustrating how context analysis is done.
413. Erickson, Frederick. “Gatekeeping and the Melting Pot: Interaction in Counseling Encounters.” Harvard Educational Review 45 (1975) : 44-70.
Interviews involving 25 male students and four male counselors were videotaped and analyzed. Two counselors were white and two were black. After the interview the counselor and the student separately viewed and commented on the videotape of their encounter. Three variables were studied: social identity, outcomes of the interviews, and the interactional characters of the interviews, measured by the Overall Behavior Symmetry Coefficient and the Rhythmic Symmetry Code. Among the results it was found that students sharing the same ethnic background with the counselor tended to receive more special help than students of differing backgrounds; the warmest encounters occurred when high co-membership was established; and several scoring methods showed significant differences for those pairs establishing some co-membership.
414. Erickson, Frederick. “One Function of Proxemic Shifts in Face-to-Face Interaction.” In Organization of Behavior in Face-to-Face Interaction, edited by A. Kendon, R.M. Harris, and M.R. Key, pp. 175-187. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1975.
A sample of 26 ten-minute films of junior college counseling interviews (involving two white and two black counselors and 22 students) was studied. Results showed that proxemic shifts were the best predictors of new segments of the data. These interaction segments were also identified by changes in speech style and content and interaction style, suggesting that proxemic shifts may function as situational shift indicators.
415. Erickson, Frederick. “Gatekeeping Encounters: A Social Selection Process.” In Anthropology and the Public Interest: Fieldwork and Theory, edited by P.R. Sanday, pp. 111-145. New York: Academic Press, 1976.
Eighty-two instances of face-to-face interaction of white, Latin, and black subjects were carefully studied. Six hundred minutes of film were coded for speech behavior (including linguistic and paralinguistic phenomena), nonverbal behavior (including gaze direction and involvement, proxemic phenomena, and kinesic rhythm), and hierarchical ordering of segments of speaking/listening behavior using “etic” and “emic” codes for segmentation, with special focus on the “uncomfortable moments” of the interactions. An asymmetry segments code, a rhythmic asymmetry code, and measures of affect and special help were also developed to assess the “uncomfortable moments.” The asymmetry segments code showed a clear relationship between ethnicity and the “match” between speaker-listener behavior. An even closer relationship was found between the speaking-listening ratio and the social category of “pan-ethnicity.” For everything except rhythmic asymmetry, pan-ethnicity explained more of the variance in the data than did ethnicity. Co-membership (a shared social bond other than ethnicity) explained more variance than did ethnicity or panethnicity. The rhythmic asymmetry code was more closely related to ethnicity than to pan-ethnicity or co-membership. Differences in communication style may be over-ridden or overlooked under some conditions of co-membership.
416. Erickson, Frederick. “Talking Down: Some Cultural Sources of Miscommunication in Interracial Interviews.” In Nonverbal Behavior: Applications and Cultural Implications, edited by A. Wolfgang, pp. 99-126. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
The author examined “LRRMs” (listening response-relevant moments) occurring during seven films of school counseling interviews and two of job interviews. In addition to locating each LRRM and each LR (listening response), a speech transcript and the counselor’s nonverbal behavior were also recorded. It became apparent that more active listening behavior occurred at some points than others, and these moments were examined more closely. Results indicated differing listening responses for the blacks and the whites in the interviews, with one person apparently not responding appropriately to the other’s LRRM or LR. A social and cognitive model was proposed for making a point within a conversation, and implications for policy, practice, and training were suggested.
417. Erickson, Frederick, and Shultz, Jeffrey. “When is a Context? Some Issues and Methods in the Analysis of Social Competence.” The Quarterly Newsletter of the Institute for Comparative Human Development 1 (1977) : 5-10.
After a literature review of the study of contexts, the research methodology the authors used for studying contextualization cues is described. Using, for example, film or videotape of shifts in classroom participation structure, they first view each reel and make notes of approximate locations of occasions and transitions between occasions. They then search the corpus of tapes for analogous occasions, attending mainly to the junctures between parts rather than to the parts themselves. Then they locate and identify the differences in participation structure across the junctures, attending primarily to the participation structures ahead of the junctures. They then attempt an initial test of the validity of the model and try to establish the generalizability of the single case analysis by searching the corpus of tapes for analogous instances of the kind of occasion they have investigated.
418. Eschbach, Achim, ed. Zeichen-Text-Bedeutung: Bibliographie zu Theorie und Praxis der Semiotik. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1974. 508 pp.
This bibliography on the theory and practice of semiotics includes a section on “Nonverbal Communication” with 377 items, many of them non-English titles or rare historical references. Also of special interest are section 1.6, on applied semiotics and part 5.0, on interdisciplinary areas of semiotics.
419. Eschbach, Achim, and Rader, Wendelin. Semiotik-Bibliographie I. Frankfurt am Main: Syndikat, 1976. 221 pp.
This bibliography of references in semiotics is a sequel to Eschbach’s 1974 bibliography Zeichen-Text-Bedeutung and contains 4,000 references to monographs, articles, reviews, and unpublished papers appearing between 1965 and June, 1976. There are 12 chapters dealing with various areas in semiotics. Chapter 8 is on nonverbal communication and contains 306 items, among them many non-English titles. Other chapters deal with film, art, the history of semiotics, and “socio-semiotics.” The final chapter of miscellaneous titles contains references on animal communication. There is an introduction in English as well as in German and French.
420. Eshkol, Noa; Shoshoni, Michael; and Dagan, Mooky. Movement Notations: A Comparative Study of Labanotation (Kinetography Laban) and Eshkol-Wachman Movement Notation. Holon, Israel: The Movement Notation Society, 1979. 34 pp. Illus.
This is a technical but very clear and well illustrated monograph on the similarities and differences in these two principal movement notation systems. The staffs, body part notations, spatial recording, steps and frames of reference, and methods of noting time are paralleled and compared.
421. Esser, Aristide H., ed. Behavior and Environment: The Use of Space by Animals and Men. New York: Plenum Press, 1971. 411 pp. Illus.
This book is the text of all papers and edited discussions at the five-session symposium on “The Use of Space by Animals and Men” sponsored by the Animal Behavior Society in December 1968. Session one is entitled “Territoriality and Dominance” and contains papers by A.H. Esser, F. Fischer, and P. Leyhausen. Session two on “Space and Contact Behavior” includes contributions by G. McBride, J.L. Brereton, and A. Watson and R. Moss. “Population Density and Crowding” is covered in papers by D.E. Davis, K. Myers, C.S. Hale, R. Mykytowycz, R.L. Hughes, and H.F. Ellenberger. M. von Cranach, I. EiblEibesfeldt, and E.T. Hall have contributed to a session on “Orientation and Communication,” and a fifth session on “Communal Behavior and the Environment” includes papers by V.C. Wynne-Edwards, R. Sommer, and I. Altman.
422. Evans, Gary W. “Personal Space: Research Review and Bibliography.” ManEnvironment Systems 3 (1973) : 203-215.
Personal space can be distinguished from territory in that territory is relatively stationary, visibly bounded, and can be maintained by aggressive behavior. Personal space, on the other hand, is portable, invisibly bounded, and person-centered. This paper presents an extensive bibliography of personal space research and summarizes major findings and methodological aspects of the topic.
423. Evans, Gary W., and Eichelman, William. “Preliminary Models of Conceptual Linkages Among Proxemic Variables.” Environment and Behavior 8 (1976) : 87-116.
Stress, information overload, and micro-macro models of proxemic behavior are each analyzed critically. A research strategy derived from a functional perspective is presented.
424. Evans, Gary W., and Howard, Roger B. “Personal Space,” Psychological Bulletin 80 (1973) : 334-344.
This article is a summary of relevant research and major findings on personal space. The authors examine work from clinical psychology, demographic studies, cross-cultural studies, and familiarity and affinity studies. Methodological problems are considered, the authors citing a lack of experimental controls contributing to a lack of consistency in findings. They recommend increased use of multivariate techniques and propose a theory of the nature of the personal space construct.
425. Exline, Ralph. “Visual Interaction: The Glances of Power and Preference.” In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, edited by J.K. Cole, pp. 163-206. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971. Illus.
The foundation of this series of experimental studies is that eye contact is one of the bases for establishing relationships. In several studies the author examines the relationship between visual interaction and comfort, competition, sex, need for affiliation, power differences, and perceptions of another’s potency. He focuses on the role of visual interaction in affiliative and dominance relationships.
426. Exline, Ralph V., and Fehr, B.J. “Applications of Semiosis to the Study of Visual Interaction.” In Nonverbal Behavior and Communication, edited by A.W. Siegman and S. Feldstein, pp. 117-157. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978.
This overview of mutual gaze and visual behavior research is organized into the validity and reliability of measurements of gaze direction, duration and frequency, the “syntactics of eye engagement,” and relationship between visual signs and other behavioral signs, the meanings of various gaze patterns, gaze as an independent variable and its effects on the respondent (for example, effects of a confederate’s staring), and gaze as a message about the interactants’ relationship.
427. Fast, Julius. The Body Language of Sex, Power and Aggression. New York: M. Evans and Company, 1977. 192 pp.
Nonverbal communication of attractiveness, power, and aggression is discussed through a question-answer format with occasional references to research studies in this popularized account.
428. Feld, Steve, and Williams, Carroll. “Toward a Researchable Film Language.” Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communications 2 (1975) : 25-32. Illus.
The authors of this provocative position paper argue against the “locked off camera” of traditional social science research and for “researchable film observation” that takes the researchers’ objectives and perceptions into account.
429. Feidenkrais, Moshe. Awareness Through Movement: Health Exercises for Personal Growth. New York: Harper & Row, 1972. 173 pp. Illus.
This is a basic primer on Feldenkrais’ ideas and techniques. The first section of this book is theoretical, while the second outlines 12 lessons of fundamental exercises involving the whole body and its essential activities. The chapters on theory discuss self-image and self-education, correction of movements as the best means of self-improvement, awareness and human development, and how and where to start. The following 12 lessons, introduced by a few practical observations and illustrating specific points from the Feldenkrais system and techniques cover posture, movement, self-image, spatial relationship, eye movement, thinking, and breathing.
430. Feldman, Michael, and Thayer, Stephen. “A Comparison of Three Measures of Nonverbal Decoding Ability.” Journal of Social Psychology, in press.
The authors compared test results from two measures of nonverbal decoding behavior—the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS) and Beier’s test. The results of these two tests were then compared with the results of one empathy measure, the Affective Sensitivity Scale, Form D (AFSS). The results of the study, in which 60 subjects participated, reveal no significant positive relationship between the PONS test and Beier’s test. The study also showed no significant positive correlation between each test of nonverbal decoding ability and the empathy test.
431. Feldman, Robert S. “Nonverbal Disclosure of Teacher Deception and Interpersonal Affect.” Journal of Educational Psychology 68 (1976) : 807-816. Illus.
To determine the role of nonverbal cues in revealing the truthfulness of a teacher’s remarks (deception) or the teacher’s real feelings about a student (leakage), the following study was created. Thirty-two undergraduates taught a confederate a lesson, overheard her evaluation, administered a test which the confederate completed with 100 percent accuracy, and administered a final test on which the confederate performed either well or poorly. Teachers were told to always praise the confederate’s responses, manipulating the deception variable. Teacher evaluations were manipulated to produce teacher like or dislike of the confederate. Lastly, the final test was performed with the teacher present or behind a one-way screen. Thirtyseven undergraduate judges viewed silent films of the teacher administering the last test and rated “how pleased the teacher was with the student.” Nonverbal behavior was found to discriminate lying from truthful behavior. Underlying affect was only leaked when teachers were giving truthful praise. Lastly, teachers showed more “pleasure” with students when in private. No differences were found whether judges viewed the face or the whole body.
432. Feldman, Robert S., and White, John B. “Detecting Deception in Children.” Journal of Communication 30 (1980) : 121-139.
This study, involving 74 children between the ages of five and 12, examined children’s ability to conceal a lie and adults’ ability to detect verbal dissembling from the children’s facial and body cues. Verbal deception was discerned slightly more from the body movements of older girls than from those of younger girls. However, judges were significantly more accurate in determining deception in older boys via facial expression than in younger boys. Findings suggest that rate of facial and body disclosure are inversely related to each other and that they develop in opposite directions for boys and girls. Also girls are better at pretending they dislike something they actually like, while boys are better at pretending to like something they actually dislike.
433. Felker, Donald W. “Social Stereotyping of Male and Female Body Types with Differing Facial Expressions by Elementary School Age Boys and Girls.” The Journal of Psychology 82 (1972) : 151-154.
First, third, and fifth graders were shown male and female silhouettes of ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph body types. One of each had a “smiling face” while the other had a “frowning face.” Subjects were asked questions about the different body forms. Among the results it was found that for both boy and girl subjects across grades the endomorph body type received the greater number of negative responses. The smiling silhouette received the more favorable adjectives.
434. Finkelstein, Jonathan C. “Experimenter Expectancy Effects.” Journal of Communication 26 (1976) : 31-38.
The author discusses recent research on nonverbal communication. He covers research indicating nonverbal behaviors that may influence experiments: the impact on subjects of the mood and atmosphere determined by the experimenter, why subjects rate neutral photos as affectively loaded, and paralinguistic analyses of experimenter directions.
435. Firestone, Ira J. “Reconciling Verbal and Nonverbal Models of Dyadic Communication.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 2 (1977) : 30-44.
This paper examines two distinct theoretical descriptions of dyadic communication, the distance-equilibrium and reciprocity formulations, and shows that they carry divergent implications for changes that can occur in interpersonal relations. A review of relevant studies reveals ample support of each model. Reciprocity effects, first identified in disclosure research, also obtain for nonverbal aspects of interaction. Similarly, compensation effects initially discovered for nonverbal research also apply to disclosure. Several suggestions are considered toward reconciling these theories by delimiting their spheres of applicability. These include the mediating role of attraction, the tempo and perception of control over distance change, and initial differences in the level of verbal and nonverbal variables.
436. Firestone, Marsha Larrie. “Farewell Behavior: A Descriptive Analysis of Nonverbal Farewell Behavior.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. 1972. 232 pp.
The analysis of farewell behaviors following a dinner party revealed two different periods of behavior: farewell interactions and farewell displays. Forty-two specific nonverbal behaviors were identified in the analysis with their functions. Couples were found to perform the same eight-behavior routine, and individuals performed a three-step display. A dictionary with photographs of the behaviors is included in the text.
437. Firth, Raymond. “Bodily Symbols of Greeting and Parting.” In Symbols—Public and Private, edited by R. Firth, pp. 299-327. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1973.
The handshake, kiss, and use of clothing accessories are included in the discussion of proxemics, facial expression, gestures of the whole body, hand, and arm used in greeting behavior.
438. Fischer, Hal. Gay Semiotics. San Francisco: NFS Press, 1978. Illus.
439. Fischer, Kenneth Charles. “An Inquiry Into the Supremacy of Eye Contact in Social Likeability Decisions.” Ph.D. dissertation, Washington State University. 1972. 45 pp. (Order No. 72312-70)
The thesis of this study is that, contrary to assumption, trained subjects are not able to control other verbal/nonverbal cues while manipulating eye contact but that these cues vary with eye direction.
440. Fischer, Susan D. “Unsound Research on Soundless Language.” Semiotica 25 (1979) : 359-378.
This is a review of Developmental Features of Visual Communication by B. Th. M. Tervoot (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1975). This reviewer found almost everything to be wrong with Tervoot’s study, and proceeded to enumerate mistakes in Tervoot’s study of deaf students learning English or Dutch in schools that did not permit the use of sign language in the classroom.
441. Fisher, Jeffrey David. “Situation-Specific Variables as Determinants of Perceived Environmental Aesthetic Quality and Perceived Crowdedness.” Journal of Research in Personality 8 (1974) : 177-188.
One hundred and twenty-nine college students interacted with an attitudinally similar or dissimilar confederate at one of four distances. Subjects in the similar condition perceived the environment significantly more favorably and perceived themselves to be significantly less crowded at two of the distance conditions than subjects interacting with a dissimilar confederate. Subjects interacting with similar confederates were also significantly more attracted to them than subjects in the dissimilar condition. There were no sex differences except on an unobtrusive measure of attraction—female subjects sat closer to female confederates than male subjects to male confederates.
442. Fisher, Jeffrey D., and Byrne, Donn. “Too Close for Comfort: Sex Differences in Response to Invasions of Personal Space.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) : 15-21.
Subjects had their personal space “invaded” by a female or male confederate from one of three directions. Regardless of the invader’s sex, males responded most negatively when a stranger sat across from them and females responded most negatively when a stranger sat next to them. Observation revealed females set up barriers against invasion from the side, while males set up barriers against face-toface invasions.
443. Fitzgerald, Thomas P., and Clark, Richard M. “The Use of Body Language to Evaluate Staff Training Presentations.” Improving Human Performance Quarterly 7 (1978) : 326-336.
Forty-one reading specialists and administrators participating in a staff development program responded to semantic differential items evaluating the session, attitudes, and personality of the presenter, with a subset of nine participants’ responses rated via photographic and body language assessments during the program. The semantic differential and body language measures of evaluations of the sessions were significantly related.
444. Fleshman, Bob, and Carey, Diane, eds. Bibliographical Anthology of Theatrical Movement, revised. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, forthcoming.
This is to be a collection of essays with basic bibliographies on various areas of movement relevant to those working in theater, dance, and related movement forms. Written by experts in the given areas under discussion, it includes sections on mime, the actor in space, historical styles of movement, movement for actor training, performance in non-Western cultures, movement notations, nonverbal communication, and the anthropology of human movement.
445. Florio, Susan, and Shultz, Jeffrey. “Social Competence at Home and at School.” Theory Into Practice 18 (1979) : 234-243.
The authors attempted a direct comparison of children’s school life and home life in an effort to better understand the different ways of participating and interacting at home and at school. Because direct comparison proved troublesome, the authors observed those ways of interacting at home and at school which seemed comparable in terms of style. For example, the authors compared the interactions of mealtimes at home and the interactions of teacher-directed group lessons. Videotaped instances of each event revealed important functional similarities between them. These insights should facilitate the integration of home and school experiences.
446. Foa, Uriel G.; Foa, Edna B.; and Schwarz, Larry M. “Nonverbal Communication: Toward Syntax, by Way of Semantics.” Resources in Education, in press.
Departing from the traditional search for syntactical rules which govern nonverbal communication, this study considers the semantic and syntactical issues within a unified framework. The authors examined the hypothesis that a combination of nonverbal signals is sufficient for a unique determination of meaning. A review of the existing literature with regard to the channels of distance, looking, and carriage seems to support the hypothesis. Implications for its cross-cultural validity are briefly discussed.
447. Fogel, Alan Dale. “Gaze, Face and Voice in the Development of Mother-Infant Face-to-Face Interaction.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago. 1976 (Not available from University Microfilms)
One infant/mother pair was videotaped ten times during a seven-week observation period in this study of the relationship of the mother’s behavior, particularly to the infant’s “cyclic” activity.
448. Forgas, Joseph P. “The Effects of Behavioural and Cultural Expectation Cues on the Perception of Social Episodes.” European Journal of Social Psychology 8 (1978) : 203-213.
Two groups of 24 subjects, students and their wives, viewed two couples’ realistic interactions (previously designated as intimate/nonintimate nonverbally and as intimate/nonintimate episodically). The videotapes were viewed in a mixed design, and subjects within each group were given randomly varied written episodic descriptions, so that subjects never rated the same couple more than once. Each group then rated both information sources separately. The nonverbal cues overwhelmingly influenced the judgments and definitions of the encounter, while the episode descriptions significantly affected the judgments of discordant encounters.
449. Forsdale, Louis. Nonverbal Communication. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1974. 162 pp. Illus.
This is a lively and personal introduction to the study of nonverbal communication enhanced by many photographs and illustrations. Seeking to encourage an awareness of communication in action, the author deals with topics such as tactile communication, body movement, facial expression, and space, exploring cultural differences, and making connections with animal communication. Included are dialogues with the psychiatrist and researcher Albert Scheflen and with the dancer Edward Villella. The volume ends with a series of observational problems.
450. Forsdale, Louis. Perspectives on Communication. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1981. Illus.
In this wide-ranging and original introduction to the study of communication, the author discusses several definitions and models of communication, expanding on an understanding of communication within a systems framework. Nonverbal aspects of communication are touched on throughout this book, in chapters on the history of communication, the cultural context of communication, brain laterality, communication codes, and animal communication. Chapter eight deals specifically with nonverbal communication, discussing touch, odor, posture, eye pupil size, time, and the relationship of nonverbal and verbal communication. The final chapter offers examples and strategies for learning to observe communication in operation. “Ponderings and Projects” and “Books You Will Enjoy” follow each chapter. Striking photographs by the author and Lynn Forsdale complement the text. An instructor’s manual is also available.
451. Frances, Susan J. “Sex Differences in Nonverbal Behavior.” Sex Roles 5 (1979) : 519-535.
Eighty-eight dyads involved in seven-minute conversation were videotaped, each person being paired with a stranger of the same sex and one of the opposite sex. Various measures of speaking turn, back channel (listening) behavior, paralanguage, laughing and smiling, gaze behaviors, postural shifts, gesticulating versus self-adaptor hand movements and foot movements were made. Sex of the subject but not sex of the partner had a significant effect, although sex of subject x sex of partner was related to number of talk turns. The numerous sex differences found are discussed and interpreted.
452. Frankel, A. Steven, and Barrett, James. “Variations in Personal Space as a Function of Authoritarianism, Self-Esteem, and Racial Characteristics of a Stimulus Situation.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 37 (1971) : 95-98.
Forty white American males participated in the study. It was hypothesized that, when approached by white or black males, subjects high in authoritarianism and low in self-esteem would maintain the greatest personal space, and even greater distances in relation to the black confederates’ approach. The hypotheses were supported.
453. Franklin, Sheila Beth. “Movement Therapy and Selected Measures of Body Image in the Trainable Mentally Retarded.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 3 (1979) : 43-50.
Twenty-two trainable, mentally retarded youth with mean age 15 years, ten months were given Cratty and Sams’ Body Image Screening Test and a Draw a Person Test before and after ten weeks of movement therapy or physical education. Body image was significantly improved post-movement therapy. No significant changes on the DAP for either intervention were noted.
454. Fraser, J.T. et al., eds. Study of Time, Vols. I, II, and III : Conference of the International Society of the Study of Time. New York: Springer Verlag, 1972, 1975, 1978.
455. Freedman, Jonathan L. Crowding and Behavior. New York: The Viking Press, 1975. 177 pp.
The author maintains and defends the proposition that crowding does not have negative effects on people. Crowding can have good and bad effects, depending on the situation. Freedman supplies the background for this statement and notes its implications. In ten chapters, the author defines crowding, notes its naturalistic occurrence, examines crowding research, poses a density-related theory of crowding , and addresses design-related questions.
456. Freedman, Jonathan L.; Levy, Alan S.; Buchanan, Roberta Welte; and Price, Judy. “Crowding and Human Aggressiveness.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 8 (1972) : 528-548.
The effects of crowding on aggressiveness were investigated in two experiments in which same-sex and mixed-sex groups of high school students were placed in small or large rooms for several hours. In experiment I, a labyrinth game was used to test competition and cooperation. All-female groups were more cooperative in small rooms, whereas all-male groups were more competitive in small rooms. In experiment II, a prisoner’s dilemma game was conducted. All-female groups were more lenient, while all-male groups were more severe in the small room than in the large room. In addition, females were more positive with each other in the small room and males in the large room. Mixed-sex groups were not affected by room size.
457. Freedman, Norbert. “Hands, Words, and Mind: On the Structuralization of Body Movements During Discourse and the Capacity for Verbal Representation.” In Communicative Structures and Psychic Structures, edited by N. Freedman and S. Grand, pp. 109-132. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1977. Illus.
This article discusses the use of body movement for self-regulation and monitoring. Freedman illustrates with examples from psychoanalysis how kinesic behaviors can represent externalized communication regulatory factors. He particularly notes the intraindividual function of motoric behavior.
458. Freedman, Norbert, and Grand, Stanley, ed. Communicative Structures and Psychic Structures—A Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Communication. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1977. 465 pp. Illus.
Designed as a dialogue between researcher and clinician, this collection of articles is the proceedings of the Conference on Research Concerning the Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Communication held at Downstate Medical Center in 1976. The six sections cover research and interpretations following the development of communication structures from early object experiences to the psychoanalytic experience for adults. Included are several important studies in nonverbal communication, such as data supporting sensori-motor origins in mother/infant dialogue and three studies of recorded communication samples during the development from basic to symbolic verbal dialogue. There are recorded communication samples defining the variability of language construction with clinical states. The impact of the unconscious on communication is discussed with documentation from laboratory sources. Finally, the psychoanalytic situation is examined—both the motoric phenomena involved in the transition from unconscious to conscious, and the measuring of the process through word frequency, representation, and interaction of thematic material. Chapter authors focusing on movement include Louis W. Sander, Beatrice Beebe and Daniel N. Stern, Allen T. Dittmann, Stanley Grand, George F. Mahl., Louis A. Gottschalk and Regina L. Uliana, and Sebastiano Santostefano.
459. Freedman, Norbert; O’Hanlon, James; Oltman, Phillip; and Witkin, Herman A. “The Imprint of Psychological Differentiation on Kinetic Behavior in Varying Communicative Contexts.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 79 (1972) : 239-258.
The “objectand body-focused” hand movements of 12 female students tested as field-independent (F-I) and 12 as field-dependent (F-D) were observed from videotaped interviews in which they spoke with a “cold” then a “warm” interviewer or vice versa. A third condition involved a five-minute “warm-up” interchange with a “warm” doctor that was videotaped. During cold and warm interviews F-D subjects engaged in more hand-to-hand body-focused movements, while during wary interchange, they had more “motor primacy”-type object-focused gestures. Certain body-focused (body touching, not hand-to-hand) movements did not correlate with psychological differentiation, but with negative interpersonal contact (the cold condition). The authors conclude that certain hand movements as they assess them are governed by cognitive style, while others may reflect the unverbalized experiences of the relationship in this rich and complex paper.
460. Freedman, Norbert, and Steingart, Irving. “Kinesic Internalization and Language Construction.” Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Science 4 (1975) : 355-403.
One of several articles by the authors on the relationship of verbal communication and object- and body-focused movement. Using a normal test population, they explore how “kinesic internalization” relates to cognitive processing.
461. French, Patrice. “Kinesics in Communication: Black and White.” Language Sciences 28 (1973) : 13-16.
In Experiment I the subjects were fourth-grade students from two southern schools, one primarily black, one primarily white. A “Series I film” was made of students individually pantomiming gestures listed on stimulus cards. In “Series II films” students individually acted out (without vocalization or mouthing) their own choice of message. Black students’ films were labeled BI and BII, white students’ films WI and WII. Each film was shown to all students who then guessed the meaning of each item. Both classes did poorer on the WI film, with the black class doing the poorest; both classes scored highest on the BII film. In Experiment II both black and white adults and undergraduates were shown the four films produced in Experiment I and guessed the meaning of each item. Adults showed a pattern similar to the children’s decoding of the gestures, although they were less accurate.
462. French, Patrice L., and von Raffler-Engel, Walburga. “The Kinesics of Bilingualism.” In Social Aspects of Language Contact, edited by W. Mackay. Quebec: Laval University Press, forthcoming.
463. French, Russell L. “Nonverbal Patterns in Youth Culture.” Educational Leadership April (1978) : NP.
Written in a lively anecdotal style, this article describes the influence of the kinesics of the black culture on white adolescents, citing relevant research and making a plea for better understanding of these nonverbal patterns among educators.
464. Fretz, Bruce R.; Corn, Roger; Tuemmler, Janet M.; and Bellet, William. “Counselor Nonverbal Behaviors and Client Evaluations.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 26 (1979) : 304-311.
This article reports the findings of three studies on the effect of eye contact, body orientation, and body lean on client evaluation of counselor attractiveness and facilitativeness. In Study I, 104 female college students rated ten-minute videotapes of counselors in one of two nonverbal conditions: high levels (90-100 percent) of eye contact, forward trunk lean, and direct body orientation; and low levels (less than 40 percent) of the same nonverbal behaviors. For both male and female counselors, subjects rated counselors in the high condition significantly higher on measures of attractiveness and facilitativeness. In the second study, a videotape was made of counselors expressing low verbal empathy to investigate whether the nonverbal conditions would then be still more significant in evaluation of the counselor. Results confirmed those of Study I, but the low verbal empathy did not exaggerate the effect of the high and low nonverbal levels. In Study III, student volunteers interacted in real counseling situations with counselors in the same conditions of high and low levels of nonverbal behaviors. In this case, no significant differences were obtained on ratings of counselor attractiveness and facilitativeness.
465. Fried, Matthew L., and DeFrazio, Victor J. “Territoriality and Boundary Conflicts in the Subway.” Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes 37 (1974) : 47-59.
Observations by the authors suggest that individuals on crowded New York City subways use the avoidance of eye contact and verbal interaction as a means of creating distance. Examination of riders’ seating and standing patterns indicates that passengers will choose a standing area, with clear boundaries, over a seat on a crowded bench. Passengers’ awareness of the usual patterns of density seems to determine their immediate selection of seat or standing area, with their goal being to preserve the maximum personal space and territory.
466. Friedman, Howard S. “The Interactive Effects of Facial Expressions of Emotion and Verbal Messages on Perceptions of Affective Meaning.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 15 (1979) : 453-469.
Photographs of teacher-confederates’ faces in expressions of happy, surprised, angry, or sad were shown with various written sentences. Students judged the “episodes” for sincerity, positivity, and dominance. A number of “cue combinations” affected perceptions in interesting ways. For example, “perceived sincerity” was related to consistency in “positivity” but not “dominant” cues.
467. Friedman, Howard S. “Nonverbal Communication Between Patients and Medical Practitioners.” Journal of Social Issues 35 (1979) : 82-99.
This is a general discussion of the topic that draws on research in touch, gaze, facial expression, paralanguage, and so on, and its relevance to patient-medical personnel interaction.
468. Friedman, Howard S.; DiMatteo, M. Robin; and Mertz, Timothy L. “Nonverbal Communication on Television News: The Facial Expression of Broadcasters during Coverage of a Presidential Election Campaign.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 6 (1980) : 427-435.
The authors conducted a nonverbal content analysis of the news anchorpersons’ facial expressions, which demonstrated significant differences in perceived “positivity” as they related stories on the 1976 presidential candidates (for example, Walter Cronkite’s facial expressions were perceived to indicate a more favorable attitude toward Carter than Ford).
469. Friedman, Howard S.; DiMatteo, M. Robin; and Taranta, Angelo. “A Study of the Relationship Between Individual Differences in Nonverbal Expressiveness and Factors of Personality and Social Interaction.” Journal of Research in Personality 14 (1980) : 351-364.
A two-part study of physcians’ individual expressive behavior as recorded in manner of voice tone and facial and body movement while saying three clinical-type remarks and in a brief greeting of the patient. Several correlations between independent judges (high school students for the voice tone, undergraduates for the voice and body behavior, and for the “likeability” of the greeting), actual patients of the physicians, and personality assessments completed by the physician-subjects are reported. Notable among them is evidence that degree of physician’s expressiveness correlates with likeability of his or her greeting style and data supporting a relationship between expressive ability and certain personality traits.
470. Friedman, Howard S.; Prince, Louise M.; Riggio, Ronald E.; and DiMatteo, M. Robin. “Understanding and Assessing Nonverbal Expressiveness: The Affective Communication Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980) : 333-351.
The development, testing, reliability, and first validity measures of a self-report test, ACT (The Affective Communication Test), is described. This test has 13 items such as “at small parties I am the center of attention,” “my laugh is soft and subdued,” and “I usually have a neutral facial expression.” Preliminary studies of degree of expressiveness and occupation, sex differences, extroversion and neuroticism, personality measures, social desirability, and other measures are reported.
471. Friedman, Howard S.; Riggio, Ronald E.; and Segall, Daniel O. “Personality and the Enactment of Emotion.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5 (1980) : 35-48.
The meaning of personality traits for social interaction was investigated by exploring the personality correlates of abilities to pose emotions. This framework focuses on individual differences in socio-emotional skills. Thirty-one males and 37 females were videotaped while attempting to communicate seven basic emotions nonverbally (that is, using standard content communications), and sending success was measured by showing edited videotapes to judges. Hypothesized relationships between “acting” ability and scores on the Jackson Personality Research Form and the Eysenck Personality Inventory were then examined. The findings were seen to have implications for predicting individual strengths and weaknesses in social interaction as a function of certain personality traits and for understanding person perception.
472. Friedman, Lynn A., ed. On the Other Hand: New Persepctives on American Sign Language . New York: Academic Press, 1977. 245 pp.
This vigorous treatment of the American Sign Language (ASL) challenges the layman’s view that language is basically writing and the linguist’s view that language is basically speech. From the opening chapter (a phonemic analysis of the four articulator parameters) to the book’s conclusion (a discussion of eye contact and eye movement as turn-taking regulators in discourse), the work presents a multifaceted but integrated look at ASL. Presentation of data such as that which supports the claim that ASL lacks grammatical subordination elucidates the distinction between language itself and the modality in which it is manifested. The argument for a linguistically significant level of visual imagery in the grammar of ASL is well developed.
473. Fries, Margaret E. “Longitudinal Study: Prenatal Period to Parenthood.” Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association 25 (1975) : 115-140.
A longitudinal study investigating the role of constitution and environment on personality development. Specific activities were observed in four longitudinal cases from birth to seven years. Early neonate activity in the following two areas was observed in the first ten to 12 days of life: congenital activity type (assessed as active, moderately active, quiet, hyperactive, or hypoactive) and activity pattern. The development of the four children in light of their particular congenital activity type and activity pattern was studied. Preliminary findings suggest that sensorimotor reactivity is a constitutional factor which persists through life. It was found to play an important role in forming the initial mother-infant relationship.
474. Friesen, Wallace Verne. “Cultural Differences in Facial Expressions in a Social Situation: An Experimental Test of the Concept of Display Rules.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Francisco. 1972. 101 pp. (Order No. 73-3651)
The facial behaviors of Japanese and American subjects interacting with members of their own cultures were videotaped after the subjects viewed a negative affectarousing film. A first hypothesis that Japanese more than Americans would display positive affect was confirmed only in the second part of the interview; there was a consistent trend for the Americans to display more negative affect than the Japanese, as a second hypothesis had predicted.
475. Friesen, Wallace V.; Ekman, Paul; and Wallbott, Harald. “Measuring Hand Movements.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 4 (1979) : 97-112.
Hand movements were classified into speech illustrators, body manipulators, and actions that convey precise symbolic information. The behavioral code noted whether the action involved the left, right, or both hands, and the manipulator code also included the part of the body manipulated. The application of this code to videotapes of conversations provided data to examine a number of methodological issues. Reliability was inspected in a number of ways; each showed high intercoder agreement. Little redundancy was found among the various hand measures, although scores for the frequency of an activity and for the duration of an activity were highly intercorrelated for most classes of hand actions. An economical method for coding hand activity was compared with the standard, more time-consuming method. Similar results were obtained, although the economical method appeared to be more vulnerable to measurement error.
476. Frieze, Irene H., and Ramsey, Sheila J. “Nonverbal Maintenance of Traditional Sex Roles.” Journal of Social Issues 32 (1976) : 133-141.
The authors discuss patterns of territoriality, personal space, touching, body posture, eye contact, and paralanguage as nonverbal cues which reflect status relationships and maintain sex-role stereotypes.
477. Frings, Hubert, and Frings, Mabel. Animal Communication. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977. 207 pp. Illus.
This revised and enlarged edition of the authors’ 1964 book contains a final chapter which reviews the literature since that date. A clear introduction to animal communication for the nonspecialist, it covers among other types of signals, the tactile and visual signals animals use for species identification, social cooperation, courtship, and care of the young.
478. Frisch, James E., and Zedeck, Sheldon. “Status, Interest, and Proximity as Factors in Interaction and Communication Channels.” The Journal of Psychology 82 (1972) : 259-267.
The study investigated the influence of and interaction between: physical proximity; status; and perceived similarity of interests. A sample of 57 graduate students made self-reports on these variables on two separate occasions. Findings indicate that students had more contact with individuals perceived to be of equal status and to have similar interests, rather than with persons who were within close physical proximity.
479. Fristoe, Macalyne, and Lloyd, Lyle L. “Manual Communication for the Retarded and Others with Severe Communication Impairment: A Resource List.” Mental Retardation (1977) : 18-21.
This article provides a resource list of nonverbal communication systems which are used or can be used by those persons with severe communication impairment. While most of the references pertain to teaching American Sign Language (ASL) or pedagogical sign systems, some listings include more general reference material about the use of nonspeech communication systems. Approximately 60 listings are included.
480. Fromme, Donald Karl, and Beam, Donna Clegg. “Dominance and Sex Differences in Nonverbal Responses to Differential Eye Contact.” Journal of Research in Personality 8 (1974) : 76-87.
Sixteen male and 16 female college students divided into high and low dominance groups approached a confederate (male or female) who gazed continuously either at the floor or at the subject’s eyes. Subjects were told to approach the confederate to the point at which they felt most comfortable. High-dominant subjects decreased their distance and low-dominant subjects increased their distance to the confederate with high eye contact. In the high eye contact condition males decreased their personal space and females increased their personal space. Similarly, in the high eye contact condition males increased their approach rate and females decreased their approach rate. On the average males maintained more eye contact than females. Positive attitudes toward the confederate were associated with high eye contact for all but low-dominant males.
481. Fromme, Donald K., and Schmidt, Carol K. “Affective Role Enactment and Expressive Behavior.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 24 (1972) : 413-419.
Sixteen male college students participated in an experiment to determine if the enactment of affective roles (fear, anger, sorrow, and neutral) resulted in different patterns of personal space, eye contact, and rate of approach. The subjects were instructed to approach an experimental assistant, a white male wearing sunglasses, and to enact one each of the four affects. Several of the hypotheses were confirmed. Subjects maintained greatest distance while expressing fear. Greater personal space was kept for sorrow than for anger. It was also found that sorrow elicited significantly less eye contact and a tendency toward slower movements.
482. Fry, Anna M., and Willis, Frank N. “Invasion of Personal Space as a Function of the Age of the Invader.” Psychological Record 21 (1971) : 385-389.
Sixty female and 60 male adults waiting in lines at a movie served as subjects. Children ages five, eight, and ten invaded the adult’s personal space, while observers recorded their reactions. The five-year-old invaders received a positive reaction (smiling, talking), eight-year-olds received no observable reaction, and ten-year-olds received a negative reaction (moving or leaning away, excessive motor behavior).
483. Fry, Rick, and Smith, Gene F. “The Effects of Feedback and Eye Contact on Performance of a Digit-Coding Task.” Journal of Social Psychology 96 (1975) : 145-146.
In this study of experimenter expectancy effects, 48 male subjects performed a digit-coding task. Results show that those receiving high eye contact from the tester correctly encoded more digits than the others.
484. Frye, Jerry K. FIND: Frye’s Index to Nonverbal Data. Duluth, Minnesota: University of Minnesota, 1980. 344 pp.
This is a bibliography of 4,072 titles in nonverbal communication drawn from the last hundred years but primarily covering 1950 to the present. Arranged alphabetically by author, the titles are subject-indexed according to categories such as culture, deception, development, dyadic interactions, emotions, facial, environment, paralanguage, personality, and physical appearance. A very useful reference produced by the author at the University of Minnesota Computer Center, it is updated annually, and one can obtain a customized search from the data base.
485. Fugita, Stephen S. “Effects of Anxiety and Approval on Visual Interaction.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974) : 586-592.
Seventy-two male students experienced different levels of social anxiety by talking with a higher or lower status, approving or disapproving confederate. Subjects looked more at the approving confederate but only in the high status condition. Subjects speaking to the lower status confederate maintained an equal amount of eye contact, regardless of condition. With the approving confederate, subjects lengthened the duration of their glances over time, while they reduced the number of glances at the nonapproving confederate over time.
486. Fugita, Stephen; Wenley, Kenneth; and Hillery, Joseph. “Black-White Differences in Nonverbal Behavior in an Interview Setting.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 4 (1974) : 343-350.
Twenty black and 20 white female college students were interviewed by either a white or black college age male in an employment interview setting. Analysis of duration of eye contact, number of eye contacts, speech duration, and speech latency indicated that white subjects tended to maintain more visual interaction with both white and black interviewers than did black subjects. Black interviewers were visually interacted with less and were given shorter glances than white interviewers. Speech latency was related only to the type of question asked, while analysis of speech duration yielded no significant relationship. The authors attribute the speech latency results to anxiety produced by the racist nature of particular interview questions.
487. Fujita, Byron N.; Harper, Robert G.; and Wiens, Arthur N. “Encoding-Decoding and Nonverbal Emotional Messages: Sex Differences in Spontaneous and Enacted Expressions.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 4 (1980) : 131-145.
Male and female encoding-decoding of spontaneous and enacted nonverbal affective behavior was evaluated using the Buck (1977) slide-viewing paradigm. The eliciting stimuli were carefully selected and evaluated to insure a comparable emotional impact on both sexes, and all subjects received the same decoding task. Consistent with previous research, females were superior decoders overall. Also as predicted, females were superior encoders, principally when reacting spontaneously to the slides. Given no evidence of differential affective arousal, this sex difference for spontaneous encoding is interpreted to reflect differences in male-female display rules. Contrary to several previous findings spontaneous and enacted encoding measures were not strongly related, especially for males, where display rules may modify their spontaneous and enacted expressive behavior in comparison to females.
488. Furth, Hans G. Deafness and Learning: A Psychosocial Approach. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1973. 127 pp.
Within this important work on deafness, there is discussion of thinking and congitive development in deaf children and thinking without language which relates to questions of the role of nonverbal patterns in cognition.
489. Galard, Jean. “Pour une poétique de la conduite.” Semiotica 10 (1974) : 351-368.
Arguing that linguistic constructs for the study of the language can be applied to gestural behavior, the author posits that gesture is to behavior what the figure of speech is to discourse.
490. Gale, Anthony; Lucas, Bonnie; Nissim, Ruth; and Harpham, Brian. “Some EEG Correlates of Face-to-Face Contact.” British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 11 (1972) : 326-332.
The EEG of 12 male undergraduates paired with a male experimenter was measured for three conditions of gaze. The experimenter either smiled at the subject, looked at the subject without smiling, or averted his/her eyes. Among the results it was found that the averted eye condition yielded higher EEG amplitudes than the other two conditions.
491. Galin, Daniel, and Ornstein, Robert. “Individual Differences in Cognitive Style—I. Reflective Eye Movements.” Neuropsychologia 12 (1974) : 367-376.
Eighteen lawyers and 17 ceramicists, groups chosen for their inferred differences in verbal and spatial abilities, were given a series of performance tests and then asked 60 questions: 20 demanding verbal, logical, or arithmetic reasoning, 20 requiring spatial ability, and 20 neutral or allowing either type of answer. The direction of their first eye movement was then recorded. For direction of eye movement, lateral and vertical movements were analyzed separately, revealing significant differences between groups only in vertical movements, with ceramicists showing more upward and significantly fewer downward movements. When analyzed according to question type, there were more downward movements on verbal questions than on spatial, and significantly more stares (no movement) on spatial. Although there were no significant differences in lateral movements with this group, a modified version of the questions given to a nonspecialized group showed significant differences in lateral movements, with more rightward movements on verbal tasks than on spatial.
492. Gallahue, David L.; Werner, Peter H.; Luedke, George C. A Conceptual Approach to Moving and Learning New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975. 423 pp. Illus.
Written for preschool and elementary teachers, this book details motor development and describes movement in relation to cognitive, affective, and perceptualmotor skills. Concepts behind the integration of movement into language arts, math, science, social studies, music and art curricula are explored through examples.
493. Gallois, Cynthia, and Markel, Norman. “Turn Taking: Social Personality and Conversation Style.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975) : 1134-1140.
Temporal aspects of turn-taking behavior in speech transactions were analyzed in relation to the phase of conversation and to the language spoken by 13 bilingual, Cuban college students in conversations with Spanish-speaking and English-speaking friends. Results indicated that the duration of speech and frequency of speech acts per turn were greater in English than in Spanish conversations, while Spanish conversations showed longer average switching pauses. Variations in turntaking behaviors, when correlated to the opening, middle, and end of the conversation were the same in Spanish and English. The authors propose that this constancy of variation from phase to phase may be a useful gauge for examining the social psychology of conversational interactions by reflecting situational factors or traits involving role, social personality, and cultural norms.
494. Galloway, Charles M. “Analysis of Theories and Research in Nonverbal Communication.” Journal of the Association for the Study of Perception 6 (1971) : 1-21.
The purpose of this overview of nonverbal communication is to help educate teachers about nonverbal communication and its use in the classroom. Many different aspects are covered, including research problems and nonverbal training and skill development for classroom teachers.
495. Galloway, Charles M. “The Challenge of Nonverbal Research.” Theory into Practice 1 (1971) : 310-314.
Educational research needs to include nonverbal communication research. Problems in analyzing nonverbal data relate to questions of: when to look, what to look for, and how to observe. The nonverbal behavior research challenge is the collection of data showing that nonverbal cues provide crucial information unobtainable solely from the observation of verbal behavior.
496. Galloway, Charles M. “Nonverbal Teacher Behaviors: A Critique.” American Educational Research Journal 11 (1974) : 305-306.
This critique of Woolfolk and Woolfolk’s 1974 study suggested a hierarchy for arranging the various combinations of verbal/nonverbal behaviors as being positive/negative, so that the surprising experimental results could be explained. The researching of nonverbal teacher influences was praised.
497. Galloway, Charles M. “Nonverbal.” Theory Into Practice 16 (1977) : 129-219.
Charles Galloway has studied and lectured about nonverbal communication in the classroom for two decades. This is the second issue of the education journal he edits, Theory Into Practice, devoted to nonverbal communication. It includes a wide range of articles on classroom nonverbal interaction, teacher nonverbal behavior, classroom space, movement and cognition, and teaching nonverbal expressive skills. Among the many authors represented are Truman Whitfield, Russell L. French, Barbara M. Grant, Dorothy Grant Hennings, Paul Byers, Laurence B. Rosenfeld, Aaron Wolfgang, and Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall.
498. Galloway, Charles M. “Teaching and Nonverbal Behavior.” In Nonverbal Behavior: Applications and Cultural Implications, edited by A. Wolfgang, pp. 197-207. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Nonverbal behavior within a classroom setting is discussed, including three dimensions of teacher activity that have been witnessed: institutional, task, and personal behaviors of the teachers. A promising approach to the recording of nonverbal behaviors is suggested, that is, recording nonverbal acts in narrative descriptions. Galloway then lists ten dimensions of encouraging-restricting models of nonverbal behavior.
499. Gardin, Hershel; Kaplan, Kaiman J.; Firestone, Ira J.; and Cowan, Gloria A. “Proxemic Effects on Cooperation, Attitude, and Approach-Avoidance in a Prisoner’s Dilemma Game.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 27 (1973) : 13-18.
Ten pairs of students played the Prisoner’s Dilemma game seated side by side or across the table from each other . They were allowed eye contact with partners or had it blocked. The experimenters wanted to determine the impact of different seating and eye contact patterns on cooperation and attitude. Side-by-side seating yielded more positive cooperation and attitudes when eye contact was blocked. When eye contact was available, positive outcomes for cooperation, attitude, and approach-avoidance were associated with the across-the-table position.
500. Gardiner, Harry. “The Use of Human Figure Drawings to Assess a Cultural Value: Smiling in Thailand.” Journal of Psychology 80 (1972) : 203-204.
One thousand forty three drawings of men and women by Thai boys and girls aged nine to 11 supported the hypothesis that “children draw human figures with smiling faces in proportion to the degree in which smiling is socially approved or culturally valued.”
501. Gardiner, Richard Andrew. “Nonverbal Communication Between Blacks and Whites in a School Setting.” Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Florida. 1972. 71 pp. (Order No. 73-559)
Black teachers and white teachers were videotaped giving the same verbal instructions, and the videotapes were shown to black and white ninth and tenth grade students, either with or without sound, or with sound only and no picture. Students rated teachers of their own race more positively, and black students rated teachers of both races without sound significantly more positively than white students.
502. Gardner, Rick M.; Beltramo, Janelle S.; and Krinsky, R. “Pupillary Changes during Encoding, Storage and Retrieval of Information.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 41 (1975) : 951-955.
Six undergraduates were asked to repeat seven-digit numbers after 0, 5, and 10 second pause intervals. Measurement of pupillary size was made each second. Dilation occurred during stimulus presentation and initial reporting; constriction occurred during the retention pause. Thus dilation appears to be related to encoding and retrieval and constriction with rehearsal of one’s response.
503. Garfield., Charles A. Rediscovery of the Body: A Psychosomatic View of Life and Death. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1977. Illus.
This collection of articles and papers by authors from many disciplines was designed as a reader’s guide to the wisdom of the body and the psychosomatic wholeness which, the editor states, gives human life its meaning in the face of death. A section on Western disciplines includes chapters on Reich, therapeutic breathing techniques, rolfing, transpersonal psychology, and a case study using rolfing, guided imagery, and group encounter. The section on Eastern disciplines includes chapters on Transcendental Meditation and Aikido, as well as four chapters on yoga. A final section on the death of the body includes articles on the experience of dying; a theory of disease based on anthropological observation; the traditional idea of sudden death due to stress; psychical and mystical perspectives on death, dying and “beyond”; and one ego functioning, fear of death, and altered states of con¼ sciousness.
504. Gartner, Jane E.L. “A Study of Verbal, Vocal, and Visual Communication.” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. 1972. 127 pp. (Order No. 72-28,041)
Interactions involving four young married couples were presented to observers in four conditions: sound videotape, videotape without sound, audiotape, and transcript. Comparison of the kind and amount of information conveyed in the different modes showed that the visual mode differed from the other three in conveying more affective information, but less overall information and factual information, and less about personal traits apart from emotional and interpersonal ones.
505. Geis, F., and Viksne, V. “Touching: Physical Contact and Level of Arousal.” American Psychological Association Annual Convention Proceedings 7 (1972) : 179-180.
Opposite-sex pairs of students agreed to participate in a study in which they gave each other back rubs “to relax between experimental sequences.” A control group did individual relaxation exercises. Results show that after the relaxation phases touch-condition subjects showed a decrease and no-touch-condition subjects showed an increase in active sweat glands.
506. Geisen, James Martin. “Effects of Eye Contact, Attitude Agreement, and Presentation Mode on Impressions and Persuasion.” Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State University. 1973. 136 pp. (Order No. 74073-15)
This study employed a “videophone” technique to investigate the effects of degree of eye contact, “agreement-disagreement” of an interactant, presentation mode (live or prerecorded), and sex of interactant on impressions and persuasion.
507. Geizer, Ronald Stanley. “Interaction Context and the Perception of Nonverbal Dyadic Communication Systems.” Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University. 1971. 146 pp. (Order No. 72-15,209)
Students receiving different information about the roles of the interactants viewed three videotaped sequences from an actual physician-patient interview. It was found that nonverbal cues provided information about status or roles, that subjects’ prior assumptions about the context influence evaluations given to nonverbal cues, and that subjects can evaluate dynamic nonverbal communication accurately.
508. Geller, Jesse D. “The Body, Expressive Movement, and Physical Contact in Psychotherapy.” In The Power of Human Imagination, edited by J. Senger and K. Pope, pp. 347-377. New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
From a review of some basic assumptions of body movement therapies such as bioenergetics and dance therapy, the author discusses the overemphasis on words, content, and language in psychoanalytic psychotherapy, the search for meaning and movement as psychologically expressive, and some basic contrasts between the movement therapies and psychoanalytic therapy, such as in style of therapist authority. Final sections deal with the meaning of touch in movement therapies and in psychoanalytic therapy and changing notions of countertransference. (from prepublication manuscript)
509. Gendlin, Eugene T. Focusing . New York: Everest House, 1978.
510. Genthner, Robert, and Moughan, James. “Introverts’ and Extroverts’ Response to Nonverbal Attending Behavior.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 24 (1977) : 144-146.
Twenty-six introverts and 26 extroverts, selected from groups of male college students through the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, were required to tell a listener about a recent dream. Half of each group spoke to an intensely attending listener (forward leaning), while the other half spoke to a listener who maintained an upright posture. The participants then rated the listeners by use of a semantic differential-like scale. Results indicated that extroverts were more threatened by the upright posture than introverts; introverts were not threatened by either posture. Both groups viewed the forward leaning listener as more attentive, and introverts generally gave the listeners more favorable ratings.
511. Gergerian, Edmund, and Ermiane, René. Atlas of Facial Expressions/Album des expressions du visage. Paris: La Pensée Universelle, 1978. 216 pp. Illus.
Written in French in the front and English in the back, this book contains the HANEST (Head and Neck Expression Scoring Technique) with about 200 photos illustrating the expressions scored. Various facial muscles are used to identify the expressions to be scored. This technique was used with psychiatric patients to describe the movements of chronically depressed, hypomanic, and paranoid schizophrenic patients, with the technique enabling differentiation of over 100 hypomanic patients originally diagnosed as paranoid schizophrenics.
512. Gerhardt, Lydia A. Moving and Knowing: The Young Child Orients Himself in Space. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. 202 pp. Illus.
The author discusses the importance of movement in space in the development of perception, imagery, and thought. Examples of classroom activities with three to six year olds are followed by a chapter on designing a curriculum integrating movement. An annotated bibliography is included.
513. Gilbert, Anne Green. Teaching the Three R’s through Movement Experience: A Handbook for Teachers. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Co., 1977. 297 pp. Illus.
Based on the premise that incorporation of movement experiences into the elementary school classroom can increase motivation, learning, and stimulate growth in all realms, this book is designed as a guide for teachers to create their own programs. Presentation of basic concepts underlying development of movement experiences is followed by a description of numerous activities designed to facilitate learning in the language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, and art.
514. Gilman, Sander L., ed. The Face of Madness: Hugh W. Diamond and the Origin of Psychiatric Photography. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1976. Ill pp. Illus.
The book includes a 1856 paper by the first psychiatric photographer, Hugh W. Diamond, “On the Application of Photography to the Physiognomic and Mental Phenomena of Insanity” and 54 photographs of the insane taken by Diamond and illustrations made from them. Diamond believed that the photograph captured the external symptoms of mental derangement. The case studies by the psychiatrist John Conolly (1858) that accompany 17 of the photographs demonstrate how posture, use of hands, and eye movement, as well as facial expression, were used in the diagnosis of the insane.
515. Ginsburg, Harvey L. “Altruism in Children: the Significance of Nonverbal Behavior.” Journal of Communication 27 (1977) : 82-86.
This study was motivated by observations that termination of aggression between male elementary school children is primarily influenced by nonverbal cues of submission by the child under attack and that the intervention of a third child to stop the aggression tends to occur when the aggressor doesn’t heed the appeasement cues. Videotapes made during a six-month period support these observations and reveal specific appeasement displays such as kneeling, bowing head, slumping shoulders, prostration, or shoe tying. In a later phase of the study third and fourth grade children saw the videotapes and were asked to predict and explain aid-giving interventions by a third child. Results show that the children were able to correctly predict if a given fight would end in aid giving or by itself; however, they were unable to verbalize the reasons for their judgments.
516. Ginsburg, Harvey J.; Pollman, Vicki A.; and Wauson, Mitzi S. “An Ethological Analysis of Nonverbal Inhibitors of Aggressive Behavior in Male Elementary School Children.” Developmental Psychology 13 (1977) : 417-418.
Approximately thirty eight to 12 year old boys were observed during 24 play periods. Instances of aggressive behavior were videotaped. Analysis of the height and posture of the child under attack before cessation of the encounter showed that in most cases the child made himself smaller, a pattern interpreted as a pervasive human way to inhibit aggressive behavior.
517. Ginsburg, Harvey J.; Pollman, Vicki A.; Wauson, Mitzi S.; and Hope, Marti L. “Variation of Aggressive Interaction among Male Elementary School Children as a Function of Changes in Spatial Density.” Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior 2 (1977) : 67-75.
The behavior of children was monitored during unstructured playground activity in areas of differing size. The frequency of fighting increased significantly in the smaller area, although the aggressive episodes were of briefer duration. In addition, the style of aggression differed significantly between the two conditions. Fighting in the smaller area typically involved more than two children. The results are considered in the context of Hediger’s critical distance hypothesis.
518. Gitter, A. George; Black, Harvey; and Fishman, Janet E. “Effect of Race, Nonverbal Communication and Verbal Communication of Perception of Leadership.” Sociology and Social Research 60 (1975) : 46-57.
Eight films of similar monologues were made by varying nonverbal cues (leader and follower characterizations), verbal cues (strong and weak language), and race (the white actor could also appear black by use of makeup and a wig.) One hundred fifty-one white students each viewed one film and rated the actor on leadership traits. Nonverbal cues were more important than verbal cues in determining perception of leadership. More leadership qualities were attributed by female observers.
519. Gitter, A. George; Black, Harvey; and Goldman, Arthur. “Role of Nonverbal Communication in the Perception of Leadership.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 40 (1975) : 463-466.
To convey superior and subordinate positions two films were made of an actor delivering the same monologue twice—in one he protrayed Clark Gable doing it, and in the other Wally Cox. One hundred seven undergraduates, divided into six groups, were presented with a complete film, a silent film, or heard a soundtrack. Half of the students witnessed the “superior position” delivery, the remaining the subordinate delivery. They then rated the actor on leadership qualities. Leadership qualities were attributed more frequently to the actor in the superior position across all modes of presentation, indicating that nonverbal cues are among those very important in impression formation.
520. Gitter, A.G.; Black, H.; and Mostofsky, D. “Race and Sex in the Communication of Emotion.” Journal of Social Psychology 88 (1972) : 273-276.
This study involved 48 undergraduates (24 black men and women, 24 white men and women) and examined the effects of race and sex in both decoding and encoding. Photos were taken of 20 actors as each expressed seven emotions. Each subject was presented with 35 photos in random order and asked to identify the emotion represented. Results showed black subjects perceived emotion more accurately than white subjects; the nature of the emotion and the sex of the expressor also affected perception.
521. Gitter, George A.; Mostofsky, David; and Guichard, M. “Some Parameters in the Perception of Gaze.” Journal of Social Psychology 88 (1972) : 115-121.
Ten photographs depicting two white females (designated lp and 2p) were shown to 200 undergraduates who were asked to evaluate direction of gaze, focus of gaze, and type of emotion expressed. All students were asked to evaluate lp for the above attributes. Half the subjects were then asked to judge if 2p was looking at lp. Among the results it was found that the presence of a second person affected the perceived direction of gaze and expression of emotion that the subjects perceived in the first person.
522. Givens, David B. “Shoulder Shrugging: A Densely Communicative Expressive Behavior.” Semiotica 19 (1977) : 13-28.
Six ten-minute conversations were videotaped of all possible pairs of four students, with a verbal transcript and 105 nonlinguistic units assessed for each. Analysis focused on the 105 behavioral units, classified as: dominant-like, submssive-like, affiliative, or aversive cues, with the shoulder-shrugging complex of actions being the most closely studied.
523. Givens, David B. “Contrasting Nonverbal Styles of Mother-Child Interaction: Examples from a Study of Child Abuse.” Semiotica 24 (1978) : 33-47.
Videotapes of 14 mothers playing with their two- to2½-year-old youngsters, with half physically abusive mothers and half controls, were studied with a checklist of nonverbal behaviors. The nonverbal presentations and repertoires of the physically abusive mothers differed considerably from those of the nonabusive (control) mothers.
524. Givens, David B. “Greeting a Stranger: Some Commonly Used Nonverbal Signals of Aversiveness.” Semiotica 22 (1978) : 351-367.
Fifty encounters between strangers, in each of three places—the Seattle Public Market, a popular Seattle Irish bar, and on the Unversity of Washingon campus—were studied. For only one person in the encounter detailed behavioral units were recorded of only those facial expressions, body movements, and gaze patterns that were performed subsequent to the contact-phase and that were terminated once the unfocused interaction was stopped. In 137 of 150 cases of unfocused interaction various combinations of the following activities were observed: lip-compression, lipbite, tongue-show, tongue-in-cheek; downward, lateral, and maximal-lateral gaze avoidance; hand-to-face, hand-to-hand, hand-to-body, and hand-behind-head automanipulations; and postures involving flexion and adduction of the upper limbs, with these behaviors intitiated during the contact-phase and terminated abruptly after social contact with the stranger stopped.
525. Gladney, Karen, and Barker, Larry. “The Effects of Tactile History on Attitudes Toward and Frequency of Touching Behavior.” Sign Language Studies 24 (1979) : 231-252.
This study measures the relationship between the individual’s tactile history and two current patterns: the frequency of and attitude toward touching in public. Subjects who came from high-touch-oriented familes had more positive attitudes to touching in public than those from moderate-touch-families who in turn had more positive attitudes to touching in public than low-touch families.
526. Gladstein, Gerald A. “Nonverbal Communication and Counseling/ Psychotherapy: A Review.” Counseling Psychologist 4 (1974) : 34-57. Illus.
One hundred fifteen references involving nonverbal communication and the helping process were reviewed and arranged alphabetically within a comparison/evaluation chart. Five findings about nonverbal communication that could be useful for the counselor/therapist were listed and discussed. Nonverbal communication origins, functions, significance, and the procedures and criteria used in evaluating articles for this review were discussed; and models, strategies, and methods were suggested for further research.
527. Glaserfeld, Ernst von. “Sign, Communication, and Language.” Journal of Human Evolution 3 (1974) : 465-474.
Noting the vagueness and confusion in the animal behavior literature with regard to the phenomenon of communication, an attempt is made to define “sign” and “communication” from the point of view of cybernetics, drawing also on Susanne Langer’s philosophy of symbols. In accord with developments in feedback theory, the cyberneticist’s concept of purpose makes possible a viable classification of signs as well as the discrimination of communication from other types of interaction.
528. Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. 586 pp.
This entertaining and well written discussion of the frameworks used in Western society to make sense of events contains much implicit description of body movement, gestures, and facial expression in its analysis of the process of keying frameworks, as in play and ritual, and fabricating frameworks, as in deception and dramatic performance. A chapter on “out-of-frame activity” discusses “directional,” “disattended,” and “concealment” tracks where nonverbal behaviors may function for a variety of purposes.
529. Goffman, Erving. Gender Advertisements. New York: Harper & Row, 1976. 84 pp. Illus.
This fascinating analysis of gender roles particularly as displayed in advertising photographs begins with an introduction by Vivian Gornick and a complex analysis of “Gender Display” and of the sociology of pictures by Goffman. The greater part of the monograph is devoted to examples of “gender commercials,” hundreds of photos organized by themes such as display of rank through relative size, gender roles in the family, the “unseriousness’ and “childlike” demeanor of the woman, and “licensed withdrawal” as a female role display.
530. Goldberg, Gale, and Mayerberg, Cathleen Kubiniec. “Emotional Reactions of Students to Nonverbal Teacher Behavior.” The Journal of Experimental Education 42 (1973) : 29-32. Illus.
One hundred twenty black and white students from second and sixth grades of an urban elementary school participated in this study. The same, previously unknown, white teacher taught students a lesson, holding verbal behavior constant while varying her nonverbal behavior to be either positive, neutral, or negative. Students evaluated the teacher using a semantic differential. The “neutral” teacher was evaluated most positively by black second graders while white second graders and all sixth graders tended to evaluate most positively the “positive” teacher.
531. Goldberg, M., and Wellens, A. “A Comparison of Nonverbal Compensatory Behavior Within Direct, Face-to-Face and Television Mediated Interviews.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 9 (1979) : 250-260.
Gaze and smiling behaviors of 32 male subjects were related to the intimacy level of conversation topics in direct face-to-face and interactive television (IATV) interviews. Statistical analysis of the results supported predictions based on affiliativeconflict theory. Only one difference, an increase of gaze behavior during IATV interviews, was observed in comparison to the face-to-face interviews.
532. Goldstein, James Michael. “Effects of Duration of Eye Contact on Information Retention and Liking in Mixedand Same-Sex Dyads.” Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America. 1977. 89 pp. (Order No. 77145-85)
144 male and female undergraduates interacted with a confederate who varied amount of eye contact to investigate how this affects liking for the confederate and the subject’s retention of what is said.
533. Goldstein, Melvin A.; Kilroy, M. Catherine; and Van de Voort, David. “Gaze as a Function of Conversation and Degree of Love.” The Journal of Psychology 92 (1976) : 227-234.
Three-minute interactions between nine “strong love” couples and ten unacquainted pairs were videotaped and scored for gaze (individual, mutual, and gaze without conversation), conversation time, mutual gaze with conversation and mutual focus. Significant differences were noted in all scores except mutual gaze during conversation, indicating that lovers tend to both talk to and gaze at each other more than strangers. Additionally, the authors comment on the economy, reliability, and accuracy of videotape to record eye contact behaviors.
534. Goldwater, Bram C. “Psychological Significance of Pupillary Movements.” Psychological Bulletin 77 (1972) : 340-355.
This literature review covers psychological investigation using pupillary dilation, the light reflex, and spontaneous fluctuations in pupil size as dependent variables. It discusses the evidence for the effectiveness of the pupil as a research index of autonomic activity, as well as methodological problems and areas for further research. Pupillary movements are discussed with respect to affect, emotions, and attitudes; sensory stimulation and muscular activity; mental activity and attention; classical conditioning of pupillary responses.
535. Gorlitz, Dietmar, ed. Perspectives on Attribution Research and Theory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger, 1981.
This anthology is edited by a psychologist experienced in nonverbal communication research and development of attributional processes in the nonverbal area. Of note here is the chapter “Attribution, Dimensionality, and Measurement: How You Measure is What You Get” by Seigfried Streufert and Susan C. Streufert. (from publisher’s information)
536. Gottheil, Edward; Thornton, Charles C.; and Exline, Ralph V. “Appropriate and Background Affect in. Facial Displays of Emotion: Comparison of Normal and Schizophrenic Males.” Archives of General Psychiatry 33 (1976) : 565-568.
A black-and-white head-and-shoulder photograph was taken of 16 normal and 16 schizophrenic men in each of five different posed emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger). Six normal male raters matched the photographs with the appropriate emotion word printed on separate index cards. The mean number of correct judgments by all raters for all 32 subjects ranged from a low of 41 percent correct for the “fear” poses to a high of 90 percent correct for the “happy” poses. The hypothesis that schizophrenic men are poorer expressers of emotions than are normal men was not supported for all poses combined.
537. Gottlieb, Jay; Gampel, Dorothy H.; and Budoff, Milton. “Classroom Behavior of Retarded Children Before and After Integration into Regular Classes.” Journal of Special Education 9 (1975) : 307-315.
Twenty-two educable mentally retarded (EMR) children between the ages of 103 and 157 months were assigned to two conditions: half were integrated into regular classes and half attended segregated EMR classes. The subjects were observed three times: at the beginning of the study when all attended special classes, during November of the school year in which they were assigned to the new classes, and again in May. Using a time-sampling method, observers coded the subjects’ behavior according to 12 categories including attention, restlessness, self-stimulation, uncoordinated motor response, and aggressive behavior towards peers. Data on an additional 110 subjects obtained using similar procedures in previous studies had been submitted to a factor analysis that yielded three factors accounting for the variance: prosocial behavior, verbally hostile behavior, and physically hostile behavior. Analysis of the data from the present study showed that integrated and segregated subjects differed significantly only on prosocial behavior at the third observation, with the integrated subjects scoring significantly higher on this factor. Comparison with data on a nonretarded sample showed the integrated EMR children at the third observation to be engaged in higher incidences of prosocial behaviors and fewer physically aggressive behaviors, but more verbally aggressive behaviors than the nonretarded referent group.
538. Gottman, John M. Marital Interaction: Experimental Investigations. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Reporting on his seminal work on systematic analysis of dyadic interactions, the author elaborates on the reliability, validity, generalizability, and clinical value of the “Couples Interaction Scoring System,” a major section of which involves nonverbal decoding.
539. Gottman, John; Markman, Howard; and Notarius, Cliff. “The Topography of Marital Conflict: A Sequential Analysis of Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 39 (1977) : 461-477. Illus.
Five distressed and five nondistressed young married couples were videotaped while discussing a current marital problem. Conversation was coded for content; voice tone, facial, and body behaviors were coded for positive or negative affect. Nondistressed couples were discriminated by positive content codes and used positive nonverbal codes during lags throughout the conversation. Distressed couples were discriminated by negative nonverbal codes and were apt to use positive nonverbal codes during lags at the beginning of the conversation.
540. Gottschalk, Louis A., and Uliana, Regina L. “A Study of the Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Behavior: Effect of Lip Caressing on Hope and Oral References as Expressed in the Content of Speech.” Comprehensive Psychiatry 1 (1976) : 135-152.
Twenty male and female students gave four five-minute speech samples. Each five-minute period was accompanied by either hand-position A (hands at one’s side) or B (one hand caressing one’s lips). The speech concerned any interesting or dramatic life experience. Speech samples were tape recorded. Each subject then completed several questionnaires. Subjects spoke significantly fewer words when they caressed their lips. There were more verbal references during lip caressing to frequency of the content category of “not willing to be recipient of good fortune or God’s blessings.” Correlations between hope scores and social assets score were .42 during hand position A and .29 during position B.
541. Graham, Jean Ann, and Argyle, Michael. “A Cross-Cultural Study of the Communication of Extra-Verbal Meaning by Gestures.” International Journal of Psychology 10 (1975) : 57-67. Illus.
English and Italian students described two-dimensional shapes of high or low verbal codability to members of their own culture who attempted to draw the shapes from their descriptions. They were to speak either with or without gestures. Both the English and Italians performed significantly better when gestures were allowed and when the shapes were of high codability. The English speakers performed significantly better overall than the Italians, but this was mainly due to their performance of high codability items. The use of hand gestures improved performance significantly more on low codability items than on high codability items. The performance of the Italians improved significantly more than that of the English when they were permitted to gesture.
542. Graham, Jean Ann, and Heywood, Simon. “The Effects of Elimination of Hand Gestures and of Verbal Codability on Speech Performance.” European Journal of Social Psychology 5 (1975) : 189-195.
Five male college students were asked to describe line drawings, some easy to describe (high verbal codability) and some not (low verbal codability) with and without restriction of hand gestures. The effect of gesture on semantic content and patterning of speech was evaluated. Descriptions of low encodability drawings showed a greater mean pause length and more words, phrases, spatial relations phrases and demonstratives. Elimination of hand gestures increased the use of verbal demonstratives, spatial relations phrases, and pause during speaking time. Inhibition of gestures during description of drawings with low encodability increased the number of hesitations.
543. Grand, Stanley; Marcos, Luis; Freedman, Norbert; and Barroso, Felix. “Relation of Psychopathology and Bilingualism to Kinesic Aspects of Interview Behavior in Schizophrenia.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 86 (1977) : 492-500.
Ten bilingual schizophrenic patients were interviewed in their native and second languages and their hand movements were scored from videotapes. In this examination of the role and function of kinesics as an index of communicative stress, the results support the hypothesis that kinesic behavior as coded here with this population is related to cognitive and language-processing dysfunction.
544. Grant, Barbara M. “Body Language in an ‘Open’ Elementary School.” Education 93 (1973) : 209-210.
The teachers’ and students’ body movements were observed and videotaped in K-5 multi-unit “open” schools. While the same sorts of movements were observed in both open and self-contained classrooms, the following were observed in the “open” schools: children roam over a larger area; children tend to move in more relaxed and natural ways; students use specific unique motions when using the materials, equipment, and devices within their environment; students tend to be more mobile; teachers’ activities also tend to be more mobile; and teachers’ postures tend to be more informal.
545. Grant, Barbara M., and Hennings, Dorothy Grant. The Teacher Moves: An Analysis of Non-Verbal Activity. New York: Teachers College Press, 1971. 133 pp. Illus.
Analysis of the verbalizations and physical motions of five elementary school teachers from videotape describes teachers’ movements as personal or as instructional (conducting, acting or “wielding”). A description of teaching styles is followed by a chapter on improving the way a teacher moves.
546. Grant, E.C. “Non-verbal Communication in the Mentally Ill.” In Non-Verbal Communication, edited by R.A. Hinde, pp. 349-358. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
The author discusses some results of the application of ethological techniques to the study of nonverbal communication in the mentally ill. Studies have found that the behavioral units used and the situations in which they are used do not differ for mentally ill and normal individuals. The ability to recognize and respond to the nonverbal cues of others may, however, be impaired in the mentally ill. These individuals may also differ from normal individuals in showing a bias towards one particular kind of behavior, a rigidification of behavior, and a restriction of behavioral repertoire. The author also describes some examples of dominance hierarchies and territorial behavior among mental patients.
547. Graves, James R., and Robinson, John D. II. “Proxemic Behavior as a Function of Inconsistent Verbal and Nonverbal Messages.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 23 (1976) : 333-338.
Eighty college students role-played a standard counseling situation with a confederate whose nonverbal behaviors (eye contact, orientation, trunk lean, and leg orientation) and level of verbal empathy were consistently positive or negative or inconsistent (positive nonverbal with negative verbal or negative nonverbal with positive verbal). The inconsistent conditions resulted in greater interpersonal distance than the consistent conditions. Positive verbal behavior paired with negative nonverbal behavior produced the greatest distance. Counselors also received higher ratings of genuineness in the consistent conditions.
548. Gray, Sandra Lee. “Eye Contact as a Function of Sex, Race, and Interpersonal Needs.” Ph.D. dissertation, Case Western Reserve University. 1971. 46 pp. (Order No. 71228-05)
Ninety-nine white college freshman talked to either a black or white male interviewer during a low-stress interview. The amount of time the subject looked at the interviewer was recorded in order to determine how it is affected by need for affiliation, dominance, sex of subject, and race of interviewer.
549. Green, Jerald R. “A Focus Report: Kinesics in the Foreign-Language Classroom.” Foreign Language Annals 5 (1971) : 62-68.
In this article addressed primarily to foreign-language teachers, the author discusses the history of the cultural study of gestures in foreign-language classes and notes the need for comprehensive cross-cultural gesture inventories. He presents the basic dialogue found in most language texts as an ideal place for the integration of culturally appropriate nonverbal behaviors and discusses the materials available for the foreign-language teacher, most of which deal with pedagogical applications of French or Spanish kinesic patterns.
550. Greenbaum, Paul, and Rosenfeld, Howard M. “Patterns of Avoidance in Response to Interpersonal Staring and Proximity: Effects of Bystanders on Drivers at a Traffic Intersection.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978) : 575-587.
A male confederate seated at one of eight distances from a curb (0-12 meters) turned and stared at drivers approaching a red light. The stopping position, gaze behavior, verbalization, speed and latency of 846 drivers’ departures were measured. Forty-five percent of drivers stopped their cars in positions which avoided eye contact with the confederate (avoidant drivers). Up to 3.5 meters distance nonavoidant drivers tended to gaze and verbalize. Among silent drivers, decreased driver gaze and increased departure speed were found at all distances. Females exhibited more avoidance behaviors than males.
551. Greenbaum, Paul E., and Rosenfeld, Howard M. “Varieties of Touching in Greetings: Sequential Structure and Sex-Related Differences.” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5 (1980) : 13-25.
The functional significance of structural and sex-related differences in greeting behavior was analyzed through systematic observation of naturally-occurring contact greetings. Subjects were 152 greeting dyads, composed of airline travelers and their greeters. Greeting sequences were found to contain one or more of seven discrete types of behavioral components. Type of greeting varied with location in sequence and sex-composition of dyad. The handshake, mutual-lip kiss, and face kiss occurred early in greeting sequences, whereas hand to upper body was the characteristic terminating act. Male-male dyads typically engaged in a brief, mutual handshake. In contrast, female-female and cross-sex dyads displayed relatively longer contacts, composed of mutual-lip kisses, mutual-face contacts, embraces, and hand-to-upper-body touches.
552. Greenberg, Carl I., and Firestone, Ira J. “Compensatory Responses to Crowding: Effects of Personal Space Intrusion and Privacy Reduction.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35 (1977) : 637-644.
One hundred twenty-eight male students assigned to an interview experienced spatial intrusion, surveillance by other students or no surveillance, and sat in a corner seat location or a center seat location. Intrusion and surveillance each produced greater degrees of felt crowding than no intrusion and no surveillance. The experimenters concluded that intrusion is the more potent determiner of felt crowding.
553. Greene, Les R. “Body Image Boundaries and Small Group Seating Arrangements.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 44 (1976) : 244-249.
It way hypothesized that more body image “boundary-indefinite” than “boundary-definite” subjects would prefer more peripheral seats in a group. A study of 40 male and 16 female undergraduates pretested on the body image boundary variable confirmed the predicted tendency towards greater defensive distancing by boundary-indefinite participants.
554. Greenfield, Patricia Marks, and Smith, Joshua H. The Structure of Communication in Early Language Development. New York: Academic Press, 1976. 238 pp.
This study of early language acquisition looked at the development of single-word utterances in two children. The authors focused on how children combine words with nonverbal cues such as gesture, looking, and intonation in systematic ways that are related to the structure of language. The role of dialogue in the development of language is also stressed.
555. Greenfield, Sarah Curtice. “Notation Systems for Transcribing Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior in Adult Education Research: Linguistics (Phonetics and Phonemics), Paralinguistics, Proxemics, the Microanalysis of Organized Flow of Behavior, Haptics, Dance Notations, and Kinesics.” Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University. 1975. 500 pp.
An extensive investigation which included examination and description of notation systems for transcribing human communicative behavior, particularly in an adult education research context, is presented. Seven multidisciplinary research projects utilizing two or more of these notation systems are described.
556. Greenfield, Sarah C. “Navajo-Anglo Nonverbal Communication.” Journal of the Arizona Communication and Theater Association 10 (1979) : 1-3.
This anecdotal record describes some of the author’s experiences as an Anglo counselor for Navajo seventh and eighth grade students. Observations include the Navajos’ avoidance of eye contact and a description of the Navajo handshake, both of which are compared with Edward Hall’s descriptions of these during the early 1930s.
557. Greenspan, Stephen; Barenboim, Carl; and Chandler, Michael J. “Empathy and Pseudo-Empathy: The Affective Judgments of First and Third Graders.” Journal of Genetic Psychology 129 (1976) : 77-88.
Eighty first and third graders were presented with two videotaped interactions. Half viewed an unambiguous tape and half viewed a similar but ambiguous interaction in which the character’s nonverbal affective response was incongruent with the situation. As predicted, both groups were similar in empathetic response to the actor in the unambiguous tape. However, first grade subjects relied on simplistic inference strategies based on only one of the incongruous cues, while third grade subjects recognized and expressed difficulty in resolving the ambiguities. These age differences are discussed within a Piagetian framework.
558. Greer, Rachel Dean. “The Effects of a Program of Total Body Movement Upon the Educable Mentally Retarded Child’s Ability to Understand Selected Geometric Forms.” Ed.D. dissertation, Northwestern State University of Louisiana. 1972. 200 pp.
A program including activities such as movement of the whole body through space, contact skills, balance skills, and bilateral skills was designed to test the program’s effects on the ability of the educable mentally retarded child to understand certain geometric forms.
559. Grieve, D.W.; Miller, D.I.; Mitchelson, D.; Paul, J.P.; and Smith, A.J. Techniques for the Analysis of Human Movement. London: Lepus Books, 1975. 177 pp. Illus.
The techniques reviewed include photographic, computer simulation, EMG, and use of dynamometers. Available equipment, methods of analysis, advantages and disadvantages of each technique are presented in detail.
560. Griffard, Charles David. “An Adaptation of the Linguistic-Kinesics Research Model to College Classroom Interaction Analysis.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh. 1971. 165 pp. (Order No. 71261-64)
Microanalysis of a 16-mm film of two college classes was done, measuring the number of students sharing movement with the teacher every one second. Consistent relationships were noted between teacher and student nonverbal behavior and the verbal context in which the posture was shared.
561. Griffin, Jeanne Gemmil. “The Effect of Self-Disclosure on Seating Position, Related Differences in Eye Contact, and Promise of Feedback.” Ph.D dissertation, Temple University. 1978. 153 pp. (Order No. 78122-08)
562. Griffitt, William; May, James; and Veitch, Russell. “Sexual Stimulation and Interpersonal Behavior: Heterosexual Evaluative Responses, Visual Behavior, and Physical Proximity.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 30 (1974) : 367-377.
In one of two studies reported here 27 male and 25 female subjects experienced (reading) erotica-produced sexual arousal and were then placed in the company of a male and female confederate. Their visual interaction and seating choices (next to a male or female) were noted. Subjects of both sexes attended visually more to opposite sex than same-sex confederates. Sexually aroused subjects who responded negatively to sexual stimulation physically avoided heterosexual persons in seating choice. Those who responded positively to sex stimulation looked more at opposite-sex confederates.
563. Grossnickle, William F.; Lao, Rosina C.; Martoccia, C.T.; Range, Donna C.; and Walters, Frances C. “Complexity of Effects of Personal Space.” Psychological Reports 36 (1975) : 237-238.
In two studies (one a replication of the other), 360 subjects of both sexes listened to a female speaker at various distances (far, intermediate, and close). Subjects’ attitude change on the topic and attitudes toward the speaker were measured. Neither study found a relationship between distance of a speaker and her persuasive impact. In one study subjects felt that the close distance made them nervous. In the other, subjects perceived the speaker to be most sincere at the intermediate distance.
564. Grove, Cornelius Lee. “Nonverbal Behavior, Cross-Cultural Contact, and the Urban Classroom Teacher.” Equal Opportunity Review (February 1976). New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. 5 pp.
This short paper reviews the literature on nonverbal communication and cultural differences for the urban educator. Studies of differences in spatial assumptions between linguistic groups and sources of interracial misunderstanding are cited, as well as research for cross-cultural differences in eye contact, smiling, and spatial preferences. Directions for teachers and further readings are suggested.
565. Guardo, Carol J. “Personal Space, Sex Differences, and Interpersonal Attraction.” The Journal of Psychology 92 (1976) : 9-14.
Fifty sixth graders placed cutouts of figures representing themselves near drawings of same-sex peers described as having one of 14 attractive or unattractive qualities. All children tended to place figures closer to peers described as outgoing, happy-golucky, intelligent, and forthright and farther away from those described as emotionally labile and expedient. Boys were significantly more drawn toward vigorous and assertive peers, and distanced from apprehensive and labile peers. Girls were drawn toward the tender-minded and distanced from the phlegmatic.
566. Guardo, Carol J., and Meisels, Murray. “Factor Structure of Children’s Personal Space Schemata.” Child Development 42 (1971) : 1307-1312.
Four hundred thirty-one children in grades three to ten were categorized into four sex and age groups. Subjects were asked to manipulate a silhouette figure representing the self in relation to printed figures described as friends, strangers, and liked, disliked, or feared persons, and the results were factor analyzed. Females had consistent spatial schemata across age groups, the schemata being more rigid for older girls. Males showed more development of schemata with age. Females were found to have a schema for patterning interactions with strangers, while males did not. Females also tended to have spatial patterns based on the emotional tone of the interaction, while males tended to base their spatial behavior on the sex of the interactant.
567. Guilmet, George M. “Instructor Reaction to Verbal and Nonverbal-Visual Styles: An Example of Navajo and Caucasian Children.” Anthropology and Education Quarterly 10 (1979) : 254-266.
Thirteen Navajo and seven Caucasian preschool and day-care students in an urban setting were studied. Using a technique created for this study, observations were made of the subjects and their instructors, including distance from student and talk/non-talk between subjects and instructors. Instructors were more often nearer and talking to the Caucasian students than the Navajo students. Caucasian students were more often attended to than were the Navajo students, and an evaluation program was discussed to offset the instructors’ differentially attending to the two groups.
568. Gunning, Susan Volwiler, and Holmes, Thomas H. “Dance Therapy with Psychotic Children.” Archives of General Psychiatry 28 (1975) : 707-713.
The results of continuous evaluation and observation of strengths and disturbances in the movement repertoires of psychotic children ages three to 12 are reported. Each child received two years of dance therapy. The Volwiler Body Movement Analysis scale (VBMA, developed to evaluate the effect of the therapy) provided a quantitative assessment of 19 aspects of body movement. The data indicate that the psychotic children were significantly different from the control group of children in most categories of body movment. Scale assessment at the end of dance therapy treatment indicated that most of the disordered body-movement patterns had improved.
569. Guthrie, R. Dale. Body Hot Spots: The Anatomy of Social Organs and Behavior. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1976. 240 pp. Illus.
This book correlates changes in appearance with the evolution of human behavior. For example, bearded faces are discussed in relation to menacing behavior, use of the eyes are described in relation to menacing behavior, use of the eyes are described in relation to emotion, and the sex differences in postures are reviewed.
570. Guttentag, Marcia. “Negro-White Differences in Children’s Movement.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 35 (1972) : 435-436.
An observational study of the amount and variety of spontaneous gross movement in black and white four year olds. There was a greater amount and variety of movement among the black children.
571. Haase, Richard F., and Markey, Martin J. “A Methodological Note on the Study of Personal Space.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 40 (1973) : 122-125.
Four common proxemic methodologies were compared in a study with 28 male and eight female students. Live participation, observation of live actors, felt-board placement, and judgment of photographs were the methods examined. Results indicate that live observations and felt-board techniques were more accurate representations of subject’s actual spatial behavior than photograph judgments.
572. Haase, Richard F., and Tepper, Donald T. Jr. “Nonverbal Components of Empathetic Communication.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 19 (1972) : 417-424.
Fifty-two subjects took the role of client or counselor to participate in this study of the communication of empathy in the counseling dyad. Five factors in 48 different combinations were performed by the counselors: eye contact (eye contact-no eye contact), trunk lean (forward-backward), body orientation (direct-rotated), distance (36-72 inches), and levels of verbal empathy (high-low-medium). The 26 counselors were then shown a videotape of these interactions and asked to judge each combination as to degree of empathy communicated. Among the results it was found that maintaining eye contact, forward trunk lean, close distance, and medium or highrated verbal empathy all independently produced higher levels of judged empathy. It was also found that the nonverbal components produced slightly more than twice as much variance in the judged level of empathy than the verbal message.
573. Hackney, Harold. “Facial Gestures and Subject Expression of Feelings.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 21 (1974) : 173-178.
The experiment was designed to test the effects of four levels of nonverbal behavior—no expression, head nod, smile, and head nod and smile combination—by a male and female experimenter on 72 female subjects in a quasi-interview setting. Among the results it was found that subjects had greater amounts of feeling and self-reference affect responses for all but the “no expression” condition with the female experimenter but not the male experimenter.
574. Haft-Pomrock, Yael. “Chirology as a Self-Creating Mirror.” Confinia Psychiatrical 1 (1978) : 51-57. Illus.
Chirology is based on the assumption that the structure of the hand and the interrelations and correspondences of the components—palms, fingers, elevation of the hands—are basically connected with psychic structures and with the nervous system. Research has found that the formation, tonus, and expression of the hand and its lines reflect personality.
575. Hager, Joseph C., and Ekman, Paul. “Long-Distance Transmission of Facial Affect Signals.” Ethology and Socobiology 1 (1979) : 77-82.
This study examined the distance at which certain facial expressions can transmit affect messages. Photographs of facial expressions which represented six affects were shown to 49 observers who composed four groups, 30, 35, 40, and 45 meters away from the photographs. The results indicated that every observer was able to label the expressions accurately, although accuracy declined as distance increased.
576. Hahn, M.E., and Simmel, E.C., eds. Communicative Behavior and Evolution. New York: Academic Press, 1976. 176 pp. Illus.
In the chapter “Concerning the Evolution of Nonverbal Communication in Man” by T.K. Pitcairn and I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, examples cited include early infant grasping and self-protective behavior, gaze fixation of blind children, and the similarity of facial expression between deaf-blind and normal children. Similar greeting behaviors of adults, infants, and chimpanzees are noted through photographs. The human smile is discussed in relation to the chimpanzee play face and bare-teeth, open-mouth grimace. Other chapters consider evolution, behavior and language, genetics and communication, the evolution of communicative patterns in animals and of learned language in chimpanzees.
577. Haith, Marshall M. “The Forgotten Message of the Infant Smile.” MerrillPalmer Quarterly 18 (1972) : 321-322.
Reacting to an emphasis in the literature on the external aspects of infant smiling (for example, effect of others, smiling as a triggered response), the author argues for consideration of the smile as a reflection of the infant’s internal (affective as well as cognitive) state.
578. Hall, Edward T. “Mental Health Research and Out-of-Awareness Cultural Systems.” In Cultural Illness and Health: Essays in Human Adaptation, edited by L. Nader and T.W. Maretzki, pp. 97-103. Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1973.
At this conference of psychiatrists and anthropologists meeting to discuss anthropological contributions to the field of mental health, Hall focuses on cultural communication problems that anthropologists already have examined and found to be relevant, concentrating on those findings concerned with nonverbal communications of space, proxemics, and building construction.
Interviewer: Your work on proxemics has generated a great deal of research on people’s use of space in the last ten years. Are there trends in this research that surprise you?
Hall: In some ways. It’s not disappointing, but I hoped people would do more with my work as a whole system. What they’ve done is taken little bits and pieces of it. It means that proxemics has become fragmented, and actually it is a system and it all fits together. It is possible, of course, to take the little pieces and work with them. Personal distance can be studied itself or how people handle architectural spaces, or you can take all the sensory stuff and work with that. But you are still left with fragments and a coherent system has been linearized. As soon as you linearize, of course, it goes off in one direction.
Edward T. Hall quoted in interview by Martha Davis for Kinesis 1 (1978) : 10.
579. Hall, Edward T. Handbook for Proxemic Research. Washington, D.C.: The Society for the Anthropology of Visual Communication, 1974. 124 pp. Illus.
Handbook for Proxemic Research is exactly that: a how-to-do-it book for conducting proxemic research. Included are the coding manuals and statistical analysis methods necessary for using this revised proxetic notation with a computer, plus computer programs (PROX and DATAGRF) specifically designed for proxemic computer analysis. Background and theory about proxemic research are also included. Several studies are described. One found that photographers from the same ethnic group were more reliable at photographing the significant interactional changes taking place. A pilot study was conducted using proxetic notation of photographs of three groups: working class blacks, Latins, and North European whites. Group comparisons on individual variables found several proxetic variables to be statistically significant. Analysis of total scores indicated that the blacks were significantly more involved than either Latins or whites in the particular context in which they were observed. If only one variable were selected for indicating overall involvement, for the blacks it would be kinesthetics, for whites it would be eye behavior, and, if anything could serve for Latins, kinesthetics would be the choice. Proxetic notation was also applied to motion picture analysis; results of how one rater decoded two films with similar situations and subjects are presented. Another pilot study involved one black and one white encoding the same data. Results indicated similarities on coding ten of the 18 variables, but the remaining eight did show differences in the perception and coding by the two raters.
580. Hall, Edward T. Beyond Culture. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1977. 298 pp.
Beyond Culture is concerned with culture as a human extension system that can be evolved much faster than the body. Significant portions of such extension systems still function out of awareness, making awareness and change very difficult. Hall defines an action frame as the sequence of events, while action chains are cultural transactions with the inanimate environment and/or other extension systems; other living things; and/or intrapsychic transactions involving various parts of one’s psyche. Situational frames are the materials and contexts within which these actions occur. These structural features of cultures direct the organization of each person’s psyche, thus having a profound effect upon everything, including, for example, the ways people behave and organize their lives, and how they think and look at things. Monochronic versus polychronic use of time is an example of how cultures differ, while high-context versus low-context is another example of cultural differences in structuring and valuing of interactions and communication. How one learns, as well as what one learns, is also culturally determined. This learning is our way of evolving to ensure the survival of the individual, the culture, and the species. Eventually, humans must begin to try to transcend both obvious overt culture and the more important unconscious culture.
581. Hall, Edward T., and Hall, Mildred Reed. “Nonverbal Communication for Educators.” Theory into Practice 16 (1977) : 141-144.
The authors argue that, if a teacher is prejudiced, this must be made explicit and taken into account, known, and accepted on both sides. They underline the higher status of “WASPs.” There are great advantages in the interethnic situation to working and thinking in contextual terms (because the teacher may not know what stimulus to apply in many cases). Nonverbal behavior can be correctly interpreted by knowing the meaning in the context of the person’s own culture. Signals of how one is clued in and listening differ in different cultures. Proxemics vary. Discipline is handled differently by different ethnic groups; and attitudes toward competition also vary widely from one culture to another.
582. Hall, Judith A. “Gender Effects in Decoding Nonverbal Cues.” Psychological Bulletin 85 (1978) : 845-857.
The results of 75 studies addressing the question of gender differences in ability to decode nonverbal cues of emotion for face, body, or vocal cues (alone or in combination) are reviewed. The research is summarized according to direction of effects, effect sizes, and significance levels. The studies were coded according to year, sample size, age of judges, sex, and age of stimulus person(s), and the channel of communication and medium. Among the results the studies showed a clear female advantage and that the effect size was significantly greater for visual-plus-auditory studies than for a single modality.
583. Halverson, Charles F., Jr., and Waldron, Mary F. “The Relation of Mechanically Recorded Activity Level to Varieties of Preschool Play Behavior.” Child Development 44 (1973) : 678-681.
Activity data of 33 boys and 25 girls age 2½ years were recorded over five weeks in three ways: by an individually worn activity recorder device; observations of time spent and frequencies of behaviors; and daily ratings by two teachers on an 11-point scale on social, emotional, and play dimensions. Observed activity data and teachers’ ratings were significantly related to activity recorder data. Boys’ activity level was more consistent indoors and outdoors than girls’. Boys were more active than girls outdoors. Other data suggest boys’ activity levels were more affected by playing in groups.
584. Hamilton, Marshall L. “Imitation of Facial Expression of Emotion.” Journal of Psychology 80 (1972) : 345-350.
Fifty-four nursery school children were tested under three conditions for their ability to imitate facial expressions of emotions. In condition A the children viewed slides of an adult female posing nine emotional expressions. An observer determined which of the nine expressions the child’s face was showing. In condition B the child was instructed to pick out a face “just like the one the lady made” from a set of drawings. In condition C the children were asked to imitate a series of behaviors done by the model who was also in the slides (touching her nose, clapping hands). Among the results it was found that the children imitated facial expressions at above chance levels in all conditions.
585. Hamilton, Marshall L. “Imitative Behavior and Expressive Ability in Facial Expression of Emotion.” Developmental Psychology 8 (1973) : 138.
Twenty-four nursery school, second- and fifth-grade children participated in this experiment which found that the ability to recognize and imitate facial expressions of emotion improves with age while the level of spontaneous imitation does not increase with age.
586. Hanna, Judith Lynne. “African Dance: Some Implications for Dance Therapy.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 2 (1978) : 3-15. Illus.
The latent and explicit functions of dance, particularly that of the Ubakala, are outlined. Hanna proposes three ways in which dance-plays function therapeutically: anticipatory psychic management—a kind of preparation or education; alternative catharsis-tension release; and paradox mediation-balancing opposites. She presents a semantic grid designed to help understand Ubakala dance-plays and applicable to the therapeutic process in which dance is the mode of communication.
587. Hanna, Judith Lynne. “Movements Towards Understanding Humans through the Anthropological Study of Dance.” Current Anthropology 20 (1979) : 313-339.
This paper offers a summary of the field and a communication model for the study of dance within the discipline of anthropology. It presents a theoretical orientation to dance which integrates textual and contextual approaches and symbolic interaction. With modification, the model is applicable to the study of other forms of performance, for example, ritual and play.
588. Hanna, Judith Lynne. The Anthropology of Dance: A Selected Bibliography. (Distributors: Seattle: R.L. Shep; Amsterdam: GeNabrink; Toronto: Theatre-books; New York: Dance Mart; Oakland: Dance Etc.) 1979.
A selected bibliography with sections such as communication and semiotics, movement notation and analytic units, structural analysis of dance, politics and dance, and other topics.
589. Hanna, Judith Lynne. To Dance Is Human. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1979. 327 pp. Illus.
The purpose of this major work is “To generate theory and insights into dance as human thought and action and to stimulate dance research.” The author uses a communication model of dance to discuss the intrinsic and extrinsic meanings of dance. Recurrent themes include a search for psychobiological and social functions and the interrelation of psyche/soma/society/environment. The text is illustrated with several models of dance analysis, and the appendix consists of a chart of Dance Movement Data Categories and a sample profile from the Ubakala culture. In a concluding chapter, dance research potentials and the application of theory are discussed. A lengthy reference section and extensive index follow.
590. Hanna, Judith Lynne. “Toward Semantic Analysis of Movement Behavior: Concepts and Problems.” Semiotica 25 (1979) : 77-119.
The author presents a semantic analysis of movement and a semantic grid for conveying meaning in movement as a tool for data collection and analysis applicable to a variety of structured movement activities.
591. Hanna, Judith Lynne. “African Dance Research: Past, Present, and Future” Africana Journal 11 (1980) : 33-51.
A very comprehensive overview of research on African dance in terms of its part in culture and society. Topics covered include attempts at dance description, dance structure apart from context, literature which overgeneralizes and ignores regional variation, and directions for the future. It has an extensive bibliography, (from prepublication draft)
592. Hanna, Judith Lynne. “Dance.” In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Semiotics, edited by T.A. Sebeok. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, forthcoming.
What dance is, how its meaning(s) can be analyzed, dance devices for conveying and encapsulating meaning, the syntactics of dance, and types of structural analysis of dance are described in this very concise and condensed essay. It includes a lengthy bibliography, (from prepublication draft)
593. Hanna, Judith Lynne. Like Me, Meddle Me: Life in a Desegregated School. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, forthcoming.
This book presents children’s perceptions of life in a desegregated school. Four pairs of contrastive threads weave through the story: black/white, working class/middle class, neighbor/stranger, and child/adult. Children’s reflections and the researcher’s observations identify “meddlin”’—meaning verbal and nonverbal aggression—as the key catalyst and instrument of social dissonance among groups in the school. Low-income neighborhood black children were found to engage in greater and more intense “meddlin”‘ than others, with deleterious results for integration efforts. The patterns of “meddlin”‘ are described within evolutionary and historical perspectives. Consequences and prescriptive strategies are suggested, (abstract by the author)
594. Hanna, Judith Lynne. “Public Social Policy and the Children’s World: Implications of Ethnographic Research for Desegregated Schooling.” In Doing the Ethnography of Schooling: Educational Anthropology in Action, edited by G.D. Spindler. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, forthcoming.
Within this excellent report of children’s accounts of their school experience and the author’s observations of aggression and racial tension within a desegregated grade school, there is a section on the behavior of aggression or “meddlin”‘ displayed in various parts of the school. The styles and contexts of fighting are elaborately described with numerous examples such as spontaneous dances of rebellion, provocative facial expressions, types of walk. Six causes of “meddlin”‘ are discussed. There is a section on the vicissitudes of such field work and the importance of observing the nonverbal level. The author concludes with an extensive discussion of the implications of the study for education and social policy.
595. Hansen, Judith Friedman. “Proxemics and the Interpretive Process in Human Communication.” Semiotica 17 (1976) : 165-179.
Beginning as a book review of Edward Hall’s Handbook for Proxemic Research, the major portion of this article was concerned primarily with theoretical bases underlying some of Hall’s assumptions.
596. Hansen, Judith Friedman. “The Proxemics of Danish Daily Life.” Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication 3 (1976) : 52-62. Illus.
Arguing for a holistic analysis of proxemic behavior involving cultural definitions, attitudes, values, and behavioral strategies, the author first examines key Danish concepts and values and shows how they are reflected in the spatial and physical layout of homes and public areas and how they affect behavior. Proxemic relations are then illustrated in a description of a social gathering in the home. Formation of interaction clusters, placement of lights, eye contact, tactile contact, and orientation to the interaction are among the dimensions discussed. Photographs and a cartoon illustrate the text.
597. Hardee, Betty B. “Interpersonal Distance, Eye Contact, and Stigmatization: A Test of the Equilibrium Model.” Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University. 1976. 78 pp. (Order No. 76229-20)
The effects of handicaps and of potential for eye contact on spatial invasions and other nonverbal behavior were investigated in two field experiments.
598. Hargadine, Martha P. “Development and Criticism of a Measurement Instrument for Scope of Movement.” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 8 (1974) : 152-161.
To determine the relationship between self-actualization and scope of movement, 24 students, aged 17 to 54, with less than two years of dance, were observed. The scope of movement was defined as total amount of different movement patterns. No significant relationship was found between Movement Scope Check List scores and Shostrom’s Personality Orientation Inventory. The author questions the general “expansion of movement vocabulary” as a therapeutic goal. The MSCL is included in an appendix.
599. Hargadine, Martha P. “Agreement of Independent Estimates of Movement Synchrony from One-Time Observations.” Conference Proceedings of the American Dance Therapy Association 9 (1975) : 156-163.
Thirty students from university dance classes viewed a videotape of paired students attempting to achieve movement synchrony and rated them on overall synchrony and specific aspects of synchrony. Correlation was low to insignificant on five ratings.
600. Harper, Lawrence V. and Sanders, Karen M. “Preschool Children’s Use of Space: Sex Differences in Outdoor Play.” Developmental Psychology 11 (1975) : 119.
Sixty-four threeto five-year-old children were observed during 35-50 minute play periods. Each child was observed at least 30 times. Both indoor and outdoor play space was available to the children. Boys spent more time outdoors and used a greater variety of play spaces. Girls tended to play at craft tables and kitchens, while boys tended to play in the sand, on tractors, climbing structures, and in the equipment shed.
601. Harper, Robert; Wiens, Arthur; and Matarazzo, Joseph. Nonverbal Communication: The State of the Art. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978. 355 pp.
This book covers much of the literature on nonverbal communication and organizes it in such a way as to overview the field, map out domains and promising areas of research, and provide an up-to-date summary into which new findings can be integrated. The authors group the research into the realms of paralanguage, facial expressions, kinesics, eye and visual behavior, and proxemics and discuss each of these areas in detail.
602. Harper, Robert G.; Wiens, Arthur N.; and Matarazzo, Joseph D. “The Relationship Between Encoding-Decoding of Visual Nonverbal Emotional Cues.” Semiotica 28 (1979) : 171-192.
Twenty-one adult males were unobtrusively videotaped while watching emotionarousing slides previously selected as being the best elicitors of four emotions (happy, interest, sad, or injury). A videotape was prepared illustrating each of the four emotions, and segments were selected to include two high, two medium, and two low expressive encoding subjects. Decoding subjects were the same people approximately two weeks later. They watched two hour-long videotapes to identify the emotions. Subjects also completed personality questionnaires and other measures during both the encoding and decoding phases. Encoding ability was measured by the number of eliciting stimuli (that is, slide categories) correctly identified by a specially designated group of observers who viewed the encoding subjects’ videotaped emotional reactions to the slides. Decoding ability was measured by the number of emotion-arousing categories correctly identified from watching the taped subjects’ nonverbal reactions to the slides. No relationship was found between encoding and decoding skills.
603. Harris, Bruce; Luginbuhl, James E.R.; and Fishbein, Jill E. “Density and Personal Space in a Field Setting.” Social Psychology 41 (1978) : 350-353.
Two male and two female experimenters invaded the personal space of 189 male and female shoppers at a large shopping mall under conditions of high and low density. Male shoppers were more likely to react to the spatial intrusion under conditions of low density but only by a male invader. Although invaded subjects reacted with various types of body movements, there were no observed instances of subjects changing their facial expressions.
604. Harris, Joanna G. “Movement Observation in Context.” American Journal of Dance Therapy 2 (1978) : 8-9.
This brief article presents a chart of considerations for movement observation. The observation topics are divided into general context and specific movement themes, and a sample observation is given.
605. Harris, Joanna G., and Beers, Judy, eds. Bibliography on Dance Therapy 1974: Books/Articles/Films. Columbia, Maryland: American Dance Therapy Association, 1974. 67 pp.
This compact bibliography has arranged titles on dance therapy by topic. The topics include the theory, practice, and research of dance therapy; nonverbal communication (emotion and expressive movement); body image; and group dynamics.
606. Harrison, Michael H. “Eye Contact, Attribution and Aggression: Situational Determinants of Aggressive Behavior and Person Perception.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania. 1974. 93 pp. (Order No. 75027-35)
Gazing and staring were experimentally investigated to examine whether victims emit nonverbal messages which may either inhibit or provoke further aggression.
607. Harrison, Randall P. “Nonverbal Communication.” In Handbook of Communication edited by I. de Sola Pool, W. Schramm, F.W. Frey, N. Maccoby, and E.B. Parker, pp. 93-115. Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1973.
This article presents an overview of research into nonverbal communication as of 1973. The author begins by classifying nonverbal signs according to performance codes, artifactual codes, mediational codes, and contextual codes. Research into nonverbal communication is put into historical perspective by a discussion of early landmark studies. The work of Ray Birdwhistell is discussed as typifying the anthropological-linguistic tradition in recent research, and the work of Paul Ekman as exemplifying the psychological tradition. The article also contains a summary of research findings, especially on facial expression, but also on eye and head behavior, posture, spacing, gesture, and touch. The author ends with a discussion of future trends in the field, including the increasing influence of ethology, the development of more sophisticated recording technology, and increased application of research findings in educational and therapeutic fields. The article includes a bibliography of over 250 items.
608. Harrison, Randall P. Beyond Words: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1974. 210 pp. Illus.
Explanation of a systems approach to the understanding of communication is followed by descriptions of performance codes, paralinguistics, facial expressions, proxemics, and gesture behavior. Each chapter begins and ends with questions designed to provoke further discussion and thought in this college-level textbook.
609. Harrison, Randall P. “The Face in Face-to-Face Interaction.” In Explorations in Interpersonal Communication, edited by G. Miller, pp. 217-235. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1976. Illus.
To illustrate facial codes the author describes a study where subjects matched adjectives with pictographs differing in the eyebrow angle, openness of eye and shape of mouth. Cultural and personal display rules are considered in a discussion of interpersonal implications.
610. Harrison, Randall. “Profile: Paul Ekman.” The Kinesis Report: News and Views of Nonverbal Communication 3 (Winter 1980) : 1-4.
An interview with psychologist Paul Ekman, in which he recalls details of his long career in research of facial expression and nonverbal behavior, his views on research methodology, the current state of the art, and what is needed for good future research.
611. Harrison, Randall. The Nonverbal Dimension of Human Communication. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, in press.
Designed as a text for upper-level college courses, the book offers an integrative “theory” of nonverbal communication. It covers standard interpersonal topics (facial expression, gesture, body movement) plus intrapersonal topics (right brain/left brain, mental imagery), and mass media and intercultural topics (by the author).
612. Harrison, Randall P.; Cohen, Akiba A.; Crouch, Wayne W.; Genova, B.K.L.; and Steinberg, Mark. “The Nonverbal Communication Literature.” Journal of Communication 22 (1972) : 460-476.
This article reviews early literature on nonverbal communication, then concentrates on the upsurge of writing done from 1970 to 1972. It gives a good idea of the trends and context of this literature and discusses the popular literature, new editions of old pioneers in the field, textbooks, and recent research on facial expression.
613. Harrison, Randall P., and Knapp, Mark L. “Toward An Understanding of Nonverbal Communication Systems.” Journal of Communication 22 (1972) : 339-352.
An historical and theoretical overview of some current trends and research developments in nonverbal communication.
614. Hartemink, B.G. “Trainen van vaardigheid in het nonverbaal communiceren.” In Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie en haar Grensgebieden 28 (1973) : 37-50.
Suggestions for a training program to develop or change nonverbal repertoire. Written in Dutch.
615. Harter, Susan; Shultz, Thomas R.; and Blum, Barbara. “Smiling in Children as a Function of Their Sense of Mastery.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 12 (1971) : 396-404.
Twenty-one four-year-olds and 20 eight-year-olds were given parts of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test in two 15-minute sessions. In the first session difficulty levels of each question were established for each child. In the second session magnitude of smiling (zero, slight or full smile, and laugh) was recorded. Children were asked to answer every question and were not informed of the correctness of their answers. The eight-year-olds were later queried as to which answers were guesses. Children smiled more when giving correct answers, except when guessing. No relationship between the magnitude of the smile and difficulty level of the question was found. This may be due to the limited range of difficulty or the nonproblem-solving nature of the PPVT.
616. Hatfield, John D., and Gatewood, Robert D. “Nonverbal Cues in the Selection Interview.” The Personnel Administrator (1978) : 30, 35-37.
The authors draw on research findings to show that the nonverbal factors that can greatly affect the selection decision are in reality influenced by social, cultural, and personal dimensions that may not be related to job performance. They discuss eye contact, appearance, touch behavior, and proxemics, and the variables that affect them. Interviewers are urged to make the factors influencing their impressions explicit and to consider if their assessments are in fact warranted.
617. Haviland, Jeanette M. “Sex-Related Pragmatics in Infants’ Nonverbal Communication.” Journal of Communication 27 (1977) : 80-84.
Sixty undergraduates viewed ten videotapes of infants ages eight to 15 months and were asked to note the sex of the infant; the other 30 students were given answer sheets with the sex noted correctly or incorrectly. Female infants’ emotions were coded as joy twice as often as males; male infants’ emotions were coded as fear, anger, or distress twice as often as females. Emotions of infants who were incorrectly labeled the opposite sex tended to be coded in accordance with differences for that (incorrect) sex.
618. Havis, Andrew Lee. “Alternatives for Breaking the ‘Discipline Barrier’ in Our Schools.” Education 96 (1975) : 124-128.
Among other responses to misbehavior in the classroom, the author discusses the effectiveness of a slowing down of the tempo of the teacher’s movements and the use of gesture for giving directions to young children.
619. Hayano, David M. “Communicative Competency Among Poker Players.” Journal of Communication 30 (1980) : 113-120.
This fascinating article describes poker game communicative behavior ranging from gaze to verbal and gestural behavior. It describes amateur behaviors, individual styles, and the refinement of deception by professionals. It ranks communicative competency into three categories such that encoding precedes decoding skill: body, facial, and limb management and control of leakage of information; encoding and the ability to disguise and distort levels and channels of communication; and abilities in decoding and reading others and their hidden cards.
620. Hayduk, Leslie Alec. “Personal Space: An Evaluative and Orienting Overview.” Psychological Bulletin 85 (1978) : 117-134.
This article delineates and defines the personal space construct and discusses personal space theories and measurement techniques. The author concludes that the stop-distance method is best for experimental studies and the unobtrusive techniques are best for naturalistic studies. If only the strongest measurement methods are considered, then age, physical or psychological situation, stigmatizing conditions, psychological disorders, flight from intrusion, and cultural appropriateness are primary factors producing spatial differences.
621. Hayes, Charles S., and Koch, Richard. “Interpersonal Distance Behavior of Mentally Retarded and Nonretarded Children.” American Journal of Mental Deficiency 82 (1977) : 207-209.
In this article the authors compared interpersonal distance choice behavior of 60 mildly retarded children and 60 nonretarded children to a male adult stranger. They found that interpersonal distances of retarded children were generally different from those of nonretarded children. However, further analysis indicated that, when the adult approached the child (in contrast to when the child approached the adult), the retarded children preferred greater distances.
622. Hayes, Merwyn A. “Nonverbal Communication: Expression without Words.” In Readings in Interpersonal and Organizational Communication, Second Edition, edited by R.C. Huseman, C.M. Logue, and D.I. Freshley, pp. 25-39. Boston, Massachusetts: Holbrook Press, 1973.
The author presents a detailed description of proxemics, paralanguage, and kinesics patterns in this overview of nonverbal communication.
623. Heckel, Robert V. “Leadership and Voluntary Seating Choice.” Psychological Reports 32 (1973) : 141-142.
A naturalistic study of 55 mental health professionals attending a week-long workshop showed a slight tendency for participants who were perceived by the group as leaders to sit at the heads of tables during mealtimes.
624. Heidi, Gloria. “These Gestures Shout that You’re Getting Old.” New Woman. (1976) : 53-59.
Directed toward the lay audience, this article states that attractiveness and youthfulness can be projected by modification of breathing, clothing, eye contact, facial expression, gesture, posture, and gait, and gives suggestions for how to do so.
625. Heimann, Robert A., and Heimann, Hope M. “Nonverbal Communication and Counselor Education.” Comparative Group Studies 3 (1972) : 443-460.
The authors review studies on the impact of special training programs for sensitizing counselors to nonverbal communication and discuss what is indicated for the establishment of such programs.
626. Heimstra, Norman, and McFarling, Leslie. Environmental Psychology, 2nd Edition. Monterey, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1978. 210 pp. Illus.
In this overview of the field of environmental psychology, the authors first define and delimit the scope of this field and various research methods employed. The next several chapters of the book examine actual environments and their effect on humans. They discuss rooms, housing, buildings, social institutions, and cities. Finally, they explore the relation between behavior and the physical-natural environment.
627. Henderson, L.F., and Lyons, D.J. “Sexual Differences in Human Crowd Motion.” Nature 240 (1972) : 353-355.
An earlier analysis of the speed and density of individuals in crowds led to the hypothesis that males and females act like different populations within the same crowd. This hypothesis was investigated and supported in the present study. The researchers also found that for pedestrians on a crosswalk the distribution for females was significantly skewed compared to males, interpreted to mean that motorists can more easily disturb the walk of females than of males.
628. Henley, Nancy M. Body Politics: Power, Sex and Nonverbal Communication. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1977. 214 pp. Illus.
The author discusses how nonverbal behaviors are used to wield power, maintain the status quo, dominate minority group and women, and to establish either an equal or unequal interpersonal relationship. Using a systems approach, the author divides the book into nine areas of study: space, time, environment, elements of language, dimensions of demeanor, touch, body movement, eye contact, and facial expressions.
629. Henley, Nancy M. “Gender Hype.” Women’s Studies International Quarterly 3 (1980) : NP.
This is a review of Erving Goffman’s Gender Advertisements, which deals with the “cultural assumptions about the nature of the sexes” as reflected in advertisements. The reviewer, a feminist researcher experienced in the study of sexual “body politics,” summarized key aspects of Goffman’s theoretical essay and picture analysis and expresses much regard for Goffman’s monograph. However, she takes issue with some of Goffman’s treatise and argues that his understanding of women’s experiences stops short, and she strongly disagrees with his analyses of the interbalance of sex roles as part of the maintenance of social order rather than as destructive social control, (from pre-publication manuscript)
630. Henley, Nancy M., and Thorne, Barrie, eds. Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers, 1975. 311 pp.
This book contains a chapter by Nancy Henley on verbal and nonverbal behaviors which maintain the power structure, particularly with regard to the dominance of woman. Lexicon, syntax, intonation, patterns of language, demeanor, space, touch and eye contact are among the behaviors discussed. The book also contains an extensive annotated bibliography on sex differences in language and nonverbal communication.
631. Hennings, Dorothy Grant. Smiles, Nods and Pauses: Activities to Enrich Children’s Communication Skills. New York: Citation Press, 1974. 232 pp.
A practical handbook on nonverbal communication development for preschool and elementary school teachers, this book is a source of enrichment activities that aid the development of the child’s expressive and interpretive use of posture, gesture, and paralanguage. It offers a “guide and a plea” for teachers to include nonverbal communication in the language arts curriculum. In addition to sections on pantomime and dramatic play, numerous references are included to suitable scenarios, seating arrangements, accompanying music, stories, poems, games and skits, and films. This book also includes methods for teaching observation and interpretation of nonverbal communication; ideas and motivational aids help to integrate nonverbal training into the standard curriculum and a documented argument for reluctant administrators.
632. Hersen, Michel; Miller, Peter M.; and Eisler, Richard M. “Interaction between Alcoholics and Their Wives: A Descriptive Analysis of Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 34 (1973) : 516-520.
During four brief periods of conversation about alcoholism and unrelated topics, wives tended to look at their alcoholic husbands more when discussing alcoholism, while husbands looked at their wives more when discussing unrelated topics.
633. Hersov, Lionel A., and Shaffer, David, ed. Aggression and Anti-Social Behavior in Childhood and Adolescence. Elmsford, New York: Pergamon Press, 1978. 171 pp.
Written by scientists in a variety of disciplines, the chapters address such general issues as provocation of aggression and persistent aggression, the correlation between televised or filmed violence and aggressive behavior, and whether aggression is a reflection of character or environment. Articles include: “Sadism and Paranoia: Cruelty as Collective and Individual Response,” “Relationship Between EEG Abnormality and Aggressive and Anti-Social Behavior,” “Styles of Hostility and Social Interactions at Nursery, at School, and at Home,” “Experiments on the Reactions of Juvenile Delinquents to Filmed Violence,” “The Family Backgrounds of Aggressive Youth,” “Family, Area, and School Influence on the Genesis of Conduct Disorders,” “Behavioral Treatment of Children and Adolescents with Conduct Disorders,” and “The Effectiveness of Residential Treatment for Delinquents.”
634. Heshka, Stanley, and Nelson, Yona. “Interpersonal Speaking Distance as a Function of Age, Sex and Relationship.’ Sociometry 35 (1972) : 491-498.
Fifty-seven dyads in London were photographed out-of-doors during spontaneous interactions. Male-male dyads maintained similar distances whether or not they were acquainted. Females interacting with a stranger of either sex stood farther apart than male-male dyads. During nonstranger interaction female-female dyads maintained the closest distance, male-male the intermediate, and female-male the farthest distance from each other. Distances increased with age up to 40 years and diminished thereafter.
635. Heslin, Richard and Boss, Diane. “Nonverbal Intimacy in Arrival and Departure at an Airport.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 6 (1980) : 248-252.
Using pretested observation forms that measured 27 variables (including types of touch, sex and age of the traveler and those seeing them off or greeting them, proximity and amount of touching),. 103 encounters were rated. The results indicated that males initiated touch more than females and that older people initiated touch more than younger people. The findings also indicated that there was a greater “touch intimacy” between relatives and those in emotionally arousing situations.
636. Hess, Eckhard H. “Pupillometrics: A Method of Studying Mental, Emotional, and Sensory Processes.” In Handbook of Psychophysiology, edited by N.S. Greenfield and R.A. Sternbach, pp. 491-531. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
“Pupillometrics” encompasses the effects of psychological influences, especially negative and positive affect states, perceptual processes, and mental activity, on the size of the eye pupil. This chapter deals in detail with some of the many psychological variables that can be reflected in pupil responses. The technology of pupillometrics is discussed as extremely important for valid conclusions about psychological processes. The chapter includes information on the historical background and neuro-anatomical bases of the “psychopupil” response.
637. Hess, Eckhard. The Tell-Tale Eye. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1975. Illus.
This book summarizes Hess’ and others’ research on the study of human pupil dilation. The book begins with a history of pupillometric research, and the conclusions reached by researchers in pupillometry are detailed. Pupil response is an indicator of interest, attitude change, and other mental processes. Hess includes a chapter on the effective use of pupillometry with other physiological measures and a chapter on the pupil and advertising. He concludes with a look at future research areas.
638. Hess, Eckhard H., and Goodwin, Elizabeth. “The Present State of Pupillometrics.” In Pupillary Dynamics and Behavior, edited by M.P. Janisse, pp. 209-248. New York: Plenum Press, 1974. Illus.
This is an extensive review of the literature since 1960 with emphasis on pupillometric assessment of psychological reactions to stimuli and factors causing pupil constriction.
639. Hess, Valerie L, and Pick, Anne D. “Discrimination of Schematic Faces by Nursery School Children.” Child Development 45 (1974) : 1151-1154.
Forty nursery school children participated in this study to determine whether some facial features affect the children’s ability to discriminate faces more than others. Among the results it was found that pairs of faces with different eyes were identified with greater accuracy than pairs of faces with different mouths, suggesting they are a most important source of information for perception of faces.
640. Heston, Judee K. “Effects of Personal Space Invasion and Anomia on Anxiety, Nonperson Orientation, and Source Credibility.” The Central States Speech Journal 25 (1974) : 19-27.
Three hundred ten college students comprised the total sample. Fourteen male and 14 female of these were high scoring on an alienation-anomia scale. Another 14 males and females were low scoring on the same inventory. Subjects were classified as normals and anomics and placed in a personal space invasion or noninvasion condition. A male experimenter was used in all conditions. Anxiety and nonperson orientation of subjects were measured after the invasion. Analysis failed to confirm hypotheses that anomics exhibit less situational anxiety when their space is invaded, that invasion of space increases situational anxiety in general, that anomics have a higher level of nonperson orientation in invasion conditions, and that invasion of personal space increases nonperson orientation. It was confirmed that anomics have a higher level of nonperson orientation and that invasion decreases the perceived sociability of the invader.
641. Hetherington, E. Mavis. “Effects of Father Absence on Personality Development of Adolescent Daughters.” Developmental Psychology 1 (1972) : 313-326.
This study examined the effect of father absence due to divorce or death on 72 lower and lower-middle class, first born, adolescent white girls. The effects of father absence were most apparent in the daughter’s interaction with males. Results showed that daughters of divorcees manifested proximity and attention-seeking from males, and nonverbal communication behaviors associated with openness and responsiveness with males, such as forward lean, arm and leg openness, eye contact, and smiles. Daughters of widows manifested inhibition on these measures in interaction with males. Early separation from fathers had a greater effect on daughter’s behavior than late separation.
642. Hewes, Gordon W. “Primate Communication and the Gestural Origin of Language.” Current Anthropology 14 (1973) : 5-24.
The author provides evidence for the theory of a gestural origin of language by referring to the adaptive need for language, the involuntary emotional primate calls, the persistence of gesture during verbalization today, and the behavior of chimpanzees when using sign language. The article is followed by 15 discussants’ essays and an author’s reply.
643. Hewes, Gordon W. “Gesture Language in Culture Contact.” Sign Language Studies 4 (1974) : 1-34.
This article draws on the accounts of early voyagers and travellers showing how much communication is possible between different language cultures. It takes issue with recent anthropological opinion that speaking via signs is not a universally efficient means of human communication.
644. Hiat, Alice Biernoff. “Explorations in Personal Space.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico. 1971. 128 pp. (Order No. 71-15,459)
This study of personal space preferences found personal space to be a highly reliable measure and consistent for individuals. Distance was also found to be smaller with friends than with strangers, with an inanimate object than a person, and with a neutral object than one arousing negative affect.
645. Hicks, Carl F. “An Experimental Approach to Determine the Effect of a Group Leader’s Programmed Nonverbal Facial Behavior Upon Group Members’ Perception of the Leader.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arkansas. 1972. 186 pp. (Order No. 72-10,185)
The effect of selected nonverbal facial expressions of the group leader in a decision-making group was examined. It was concluded that negative nonverbal facial expressions caused subjects to perceive the leader as having a significantly less favorable attitude toward them. This perception was irrespective of the length of time the negative expressions were maintained by the leader.
646. Hill, Sir Dennis. “Nonverbal Behaviour in Mental Illness.” British Journal of Psychiatry 124 (1974) : 221-230. Illus.
The author distinguishes pathological forms of nonverbal behavior into those accompanying severe inhibitory states, partial inhibitory states, and disinhibitory states. Factors contributing to these behaviors and the effect of phenothiazine medication on the nonverbal behavior of chronic schizophrenics are discussed.
647. Hillabrant, Walter John. “Locomotion and Gaze Direction As Determinants of Judgements Concerning Persons Engaged in Face-to-Face Interaction.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Riverside. 1972. 68 pp. (Order No. 73156-35)
Videotapes were made of eight short dyadic encounters. The locomotor activity and gaze direction/aversion of the dyad was experimentally manipulated. Raters judged the locomoting person as more dominant than the stationary member and the “gaze-directing” person as both more dominant and attractive than the “gazeaverting” member.
648. Hinchliffe, Mary; Hooper, Douglas; Roberts, F. John; and Vaughan, Pamela W. “A Study of the Interaction Between Depressed Patients and Their Spouses.” British Journal of Psychiatry 126 (1975) : 164-172.