INTRODUCTION

Once in a while it happens: we feel as if we are playing in a dream. Everything we want to express is projected, and our technique functions with ease and elegance as a display in itself or as a means of making the language of music understood. Then there are other times when we struggle through a piece, “making it a success,” and, if we are lucky, nobody notices the great effort it took.

All the complexities that enter into a performance—health, mental disposition, muscular readiness, musical knowledge, feedback and control, and the desire to express—are finally executed by two hands and ten fingers that are set in motion. Psychologists struggle to explain how a skill can be performed and controlled at the same time, when we are anticipating not only the musical architecture of a piece but also the intermittent execution of each part of it, of every motion involved.

Different schools of thought have different solutions for many aspects of the execution of motions in string playing. That, however, is not my principal concern. I would like to discuss the initiation of a motion. Jesse Owens, the Olympic runner, is supposed to have said, “I lift my feet and God puts them down.” If I give the right impetus at the time of the impulse, the continuation and the success of the motion will be the necessary outcome.

Music making is thought and emotion translated into movements that are as varied as there are variables in music. The problem I am concerned with is the grouping of separately initiated movements into one continuous motion that can be initiated by a single impulse. This single impulse for a compound motion results in fluency and speed of string playing because entire patterns of movements will respond easily to the motor memory.

MOTION IMPULSES

The motion impulse is a command from the brain to move certain muscle groups. The muscular impulse is transferred to the fingers through moving joints. The shoulder muscle group gives the impulse for rotating the whole arm. The upper arm muscle group controls the forearm in two ways: extension and contraction, and rotation around its axis. The forearm muscle group controls the wrist, the hand, and the fingers. The initiation of the motion is important because it determines the outcome. The audible result can only tell us if it was successful or not.

A motion can be simple, that is, the motion impulse and the musical impulse coincide, as in the final strokes of the passage in Ex. 1.

Ex. 1. Dvořák, Concerto in B minor, Op. 104.

With the left hand on the string, the right-hand motion consists of two circles. The attack of the string occurs at the downward impetus of the circle, and the continuation of the circle prepares the next stroke.

A motion can be complex, as in the run in Ex. 2.

Ex. 2. Schumann, Concerto in A minor, Op. 129.

Musically it is a single motion but it calls for many technical actions: The fingers of the left hand move on the string, the forearm makes a rolling movement, the arm transfers the fingers from one string to the next and shifts to different positions. The right hand starts with an accent, sets the bow in motion, crosses strings, increases dynamics, and changes bows.

Exx. 1 and 2 each convey a single musical gesture. The multiplicity of mechanical impulses of the second gesture should not detract from the unity of its musical impulse. If the same impulse used in the Dvořák example is used for each finger in the Schumann, the run will never be fast enough, even if it is practiced at length. The player must play many notes in one impulse, but the question is: how many? what impulse? where and how?

The psychologist George Miller has pointed out that we can perceive and retain up to seven single items (letters or numbers) but that we show much better retention when the bits or letters are grouped into words.¹ The complexity of a word is analogous to a pattern in music; it is easier to perceive and process a pattern than many single notes. Another psychological factor is reaction time, or the delay that occurs between the stimulus and the initiation of the response. If we perceive a stimulus for a group of notes, we eliminate the delay that would occur if each individual note were singly initiated.

This leaves us with the task of recognizing patterns in music, determining the appropriate motion, and analyzing the point from which the motion gets its momentum. Each pattern has a musical and rhythmical impulse that can be interpreted in different ways. This will result in different movements initiated by different impulses.

I will now turn to specific technical and musical examples. Left-hand motions will be treated first, going from small movements, like trills and position patterns, to shifts and combinations of movements. The discussion of right-hand motions will follow, ranging from whole-arm arpeggiating movements to single strokes, combination bowings, and spiccato.

LEFT HAND

Trills

A trill consists of repeated finger lifting and striking. To avoid the tiresome lift-strike impulse for each pair of notes a rebounding action can be used that is comparable to the bounce of a drum stick on a drum: One impulse sets in motion a series of rebounds, which get weaker as the initial energy disappears. Shorter trills need only one impetus. For sustained trills the continuation of the impulse has to be lengthened with the least possible resistance in the arm and hand, or a new impulse has to be given periodically.

Patterns in one position

Ex. 3.

The same impulse, resulting from the finger lift-strike action is used for patterns in one position. When playing the pattern shown in Ex. 3 slowly, each finger gets the same impulse from the preparatory lift. The arm weight moves from one finger to the next, and this weight transfer results in a slight rolling sensation from the inner to the outer part of the hand. As the pattern is sped up and repeated, the striking of the fourth finger coincides with the lifting of the first finger and the four single impulses (indicated by arrows) melt into one single one that gains additional momentum from the forearm rotation (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

When Ex. 4 is played slowly, each finger gets a single lift-strike impulse, but at a faster tempo we need to combine single notes into patterns that can be played with one impulse for several notes. We can divide the Beethoven excerpt into five units (Ex. 5), each of which can be played with one impulse. The impulse sets the hand in motion, and the momentum transfers the weight from finger to finger in a falling-domino effect.

Ex. 4. Beethoven, Sonata in A major, Op. 69.

Ex. 5.

Looking at the musical line and the tempo marking ¢ in Ex. 4, we may want to combine even more notes in one impulse: Finger patterns 1 and 2 repeat the same motion and can be played with one impetus for both. The change of direction in pattern 3 needs a new impulse that sets up the downward motion of the run (Ex. 6). Now the motion impulses coincide with the rhythmical impulses and the shape of the musical line. However, a performer may want to emphasize the fluency of the music and reduce the four impulses to only two, as in Ex. 7.

Ex. 6.

Ex. 7.

In reviewing the steps we have taken with this small excerpt, we see that we can find several musically and technically valid solutions. We can play the same two bars with six, four, or two impulses. If we use six impulses the phrase will sound loaded with energy, while it will float elegantly if we choose to play it with only two. The motor memory will react easily to a few impulses and we can avoid endless repetition of a series of single notes when practicing.

Shifts

We have discussed motion impulses resulting from finger lifting and striking and weight transfer by means of forearm rotation. For shifting we need new impulses because the motion is different.

The motion impulse for a shift consists of a chain of impulses originating in the rotation of the shoulder, which puts the arm into a different position. Simultaneously the forearm extends or contracts and changes the direction of the hand. The arrival of these impulses in the fingertips causes a weight release into a timed slide at the end of which the weight is put back into the fingertips. This sensation is comparable to the one a skier feels when he gets the impetus from a dip in the ground to carry him on weightlessly.

When we have ample time for shifting, as in a moderately slow melodic line, we can choose where to borrow the time for the slide, from the departure note or from the arrival note. If the two notes of the shift should not be connected by a slide, the shift should coincide with the phrase division of the music. Ex. 8 illustrates these three shifting possibilities. Shift 1 and shift 3 may be done by taking time either from the departure note or from the arrival note. Shift 2 should coincide with the phrase division.

Ex. 8. Dvořák, Concerto in B minor, Op. 104.

Now let us examine shift 1 in greater detail. We may want to give the main musical impulse to the second note (g). This would result in a slide that takes time from the departure note (b), and the weight of the shifting impulse is felt toward the arrival note (g). The same shift may be executed differently if we feel the first note (b) as the main musical impulse out of which the second note grows. In this case we feel the arm weight on note b and the time for the slide is taken from the arrival note (g), where the hand arrives weightlessly.

In slow tempo the choice of the impulse is a question of taste and interpretation; in fast tempo it is a matter of necessity.

When we play scales, triads, or broken chords the impulse is usually given to the note preceding the shift. The striking of the finger provides the downward impetus that, as it rebounds, releases the weight in the direction of the shift. In fast tempo, however, we often have to play larger groups of notes with one impulse. Then the arm motion conducts a large motion impulse that encompasses several secondary shifting impulses.

In Ex. 9 it would be musically unacceptable to give the impulse toward the shift and thus stress the second note of every four-note pattern. The weight release impulse that has to be given on each first note not only results in the shift but also triggers the finger motion of the following three notes. In the sextuplet at the end of the measure a second impulse is needed, not for shifting or other technical reasons, but to bring out the rhythmical structure.

The previous solution would be acceptable if the basic pulse were eighth notes. But a look at the score shows that the music here moves in quarter and half notes. So the ideal solution may be the one in Ex. 10, in which the eighth-note impulses become secondary ones. One major impulse carries the arm through the first half of the bar, the next impulse sets up the motion for the upper positions of the third quarter, and the last two impulses emphasize the rhythmic change that sets up the long singing phrase in the following measures.

Ex. 9. Haydn, Concerto in D major, Op. 101.

Ex. 10.

These few examples make us aware of the importance and the variety of left-hand motion impulses. They may result in rebounds or weight transfer of the fingers in shifts or direction changes of the arm. Sometimes we need new energy for technical reasons and we have to give new impulses that will be imperceptible to the listener; and at other times the technical impulse will coincide with a musical accent. The timing and the energy we give to an impulse depends on the tempo, rhythm, and shape of each part of a piece of music.

THE RIGHT HAND

When we pedal a bicycle we do not push continuously throughout the turn of the wheel; we give only one downward impetus that will carry out the whole circle. The impulse is strongest at the point of initiation and loses energy as it continues. If we do not want it to stop completely we have to prepare for a new impulse while the momentum of the previous one is still carrying out the motion. Similarly, the motions of the right hand are directed by the whole arm through a chain of impulses from the shoulder joint into the fingers. Continuous bow strokes call for a circular arm motion with the shoulder joint as fulcrum for a whole-arm stroke. For smaller bow units on the upper half of the bow the elbow acts as fulcrum around which the forearm circles. The circular motions can revolve clockwise or counter clockwise.

In the discussion that follows we shall use arrows to indicate the direction of the motion (see Fig. 2) and the thickness of the line to indicate the amount of energy in a motion:

Fig. 2

Arpeggios over three or four strings

It is the shoulder rotation that sets the whole arm into a half circular motion. The weight is transferred into the fingers and changes from the outer hand near the frog to the inner hand on the upper half of the bow.

In slow tempo we give one impulse to each up and down bow; in faster tempo one impetus carries the arm up and down, as in Ex. 11.

Ex. 11. Tchaikovsky, Rococo Variations, Op. 33.

String-crossings, two notes slurred

When we slur two notes on each bow, the arm forms two circles, but each circle has a different direction: The down-bow counter clockwise , the up-bow clockwise . This change of direction makes it necessary to give two impulses. When we combine both circles into one continuous motion, they form a figure 8, lying on its side, played with one impulse for each downward motion (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

The first four bars of Ex. 12 consist of six figure-8 movements that have the impulse for the downward motion on the outsides of the 8 (as in Fig. 3). At measure 5 the pattern and the motion change, and we need the impulse for the upward motion. It gets its momentum on the inner lines of the figure 8. This fact is often overlooked and results in a scramble.

Ex. 12. Bach, Gigue from Suite in C major.

Six or eight notes slurred across two strings

When we cross our legs and drop the crossed-over leg, we feel it bouncing up and down lightly until it stops. In much the same way we feel a rebounding sensation in the forearm when we suspend the upper arm, as if playing in the middle of the bow, and drop the forearm. This up-and-down, rebounding motion of the forearm can be combined with the horizontal drawing of the bow for slurred string-crossing.

Ex. 13. Brahms, Sonata in F major, Op. 99.

With each new bow we give a new impulse that will set off a series of rebounds. The difficulty in Ex. 13 is the fading of energy with so many rebounds at a high dynamic level. It is advisable to use a new downward impulse on every beat of the measure.

Ex. 14. Bach, Prelude from Suite in G major.

If we use one bow per half bar in Ex. 14, we have a combination of two motions: a half circle and slurred string-crossings. One impulse from the shoulder forms the half circle for the first five notes. The downward impulse of the forearm rebounds against the upper arm for the last three notes. The impetus for the last three notes acts at the same time as the pickup for the next half circle.

Single strokes on the string

We can conceptualize single strokes as three different ways to use motion impulses: (1) The martelé stroke calls for one impulse for each single note. The impulse is created by arm weight and thrust followed by a sudden release of weight resulting in an explosive attack. It comes to a complete stop where new energy is gathered for the next attack. (2) The détaché stroke also has one impulse for each note, but the bow is not stopped between strokes. It gains its momentum from the speed at each bow change when the arm swings into the new bow direction. (3) Legato playing could be defined as the avoidance of impulses, or as a continuous chain of preparing impulses.

Ex. 15. Haydn, Concerto in D major, Op. 101.

A series of single strokes is directed by circular arm movements that are enlarged for string-crossings. If the circles change direction they need a new impulse, but for circles in the same direction one impulse is sufficient for a whole series. In Ex. 15, at the start of the 32nd notes we give an impulse to a clockwise circle for each pair of notes, and that sets off the series of circles in the same direction. The energy of the initial impulse flows out in the 16th note. The next impulse repeats this process but the circles revolve counter clockwise.

Single notes off the string

When we play spiccato in moderate tempo we use the whole arm like a pendulum, and this impulse makes the bow touch the string at the bottom part of the pendulum’s half circle. In a faster tempo the swinging back and forth of the arm starts the hand swinging from the wrist, and the up-bow rebounds without a separate impulse. In very fast tempo the arm motion becomes a shaking that sets off continuing circles in the wrist and fingers (see Ex. 16).

Ex. 16. Valentini, Sonata in E major.

Spiccato bowing crossing strings has two components: the down-bow impulse with rebounding up-bow on the first and third 16th note, and the shoulder rotation impulses that carry the elbow down and up for the string-crossings. In fast tempo the down-bow impulses become a continuous swinging of the hand from the wrist and we are only aware of the shoulder motion that swings the elbow up and down in a half circle.

Thrown bow

The initial energy, the continuation and fading out of a motion impulse, becomes especially evident in the use of thrown bow. If not disturbed or resisted, a thrown bow will rebound and taper out like a thrown Ping-Pong ball.

The impulse for several notes in one bow direction is a simple drop-pull sideways motion; but the reversal of the bow direction while the bouncing continues requires careful thought. As we need a new impulse the arm has to be ready for the drop into the new bow direction, which means it has to be in up-bow direction in the air at the end of the down-bow and vice versa. We can gain additional impulse from the swing of the hand and wrist at each bow change.

We cannot practice this bowing very slowly, but we can divide it into its components, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.

The motion impulse at the beginning of the new bow has to be the same as the initial drop. The arm continues the motion during the rest.

Ex. 17. Dvořák, Concerto in B minor, Op. 104.

Similarly we can divide the bowing in Ex. 17 into its two components (Ex. 18). When each separate motion has gained the right impulse we let them continue themselves.

Ex. 18.

Just as left-hand technique involves a variety of motion impulses to meet various musical and technical requirements, right-hand technique demands an equally varied repertoire of motion impulses. If we play continuous strokes with circular arm motions the impulses depend on the size, speed, and direction of the circles. We can make use of the rebounding action of the forearm in an up-and-down bouncing motion or in a sideways reflex motion. The wrist, hand, and fingers receive impulses as a continuation of an arm motion, or they gain a momentum that lets them move independently at greater speeds. Each individual sound may require a different impulse depending on its articulation, length, dynamic level, and the context in which it occurs; or a whole series of sounds may be initiated by a single impulse.

CONCLUSION

Nobody would deny that an athlete has to find the most economical motions to achieve maximum accuracy with the least possible effort. And just like an athlete a musician has to find the most effective motions for the execution of his craft.

The performer has to have a clear perception of the piece of music he is performing. He has to know its style, form, rhythm, harmonies, and colors. In his mind he hears what he is about to perform, and his body perceives the impulse necessary for the musical execution.

A strongly motivated player will express what he desires to say with all available means. He might find the best solutions by intuition, or his strong motivation may carry him through unsolved difficulties. But if his performance lacks consistency, he needs to analyze the outcome.

The idea of looking for the right motion impulse may solve some problems or may inspire a new way of practicing. By forming motions that will make technical hurdles part of a congenial body feeling, we can turn nervous anxiety into musical excitement, or fluency and ease. Sometimes, however, we should add extra impulses to transmit the specifically called-for expression, because a piece of music should not necessarily sound effortless.

As one’s mind grows to understand music one’s body learns to find the most appropriate motions. Ideally the performer develops his sensitivity to music as he develops his technique to express it.

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1. G. A. Miller, "The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information," Psychological Review, 1956.