“INDEX” in “Digital Hate”
INDEX
abuse, 65, 101, 115; verbal, 15, 246
activism, 119, 142, 169, 177, 201, 242; anonymous, 81; antiracist, 126; digital, 68, 79, 82, 83; media, 79; political, 78, 79; right-wing, 12, 102, 104, 110n2, 159; social, 68; social media, 60, 82, 104. See also Turkey, Turkish activists
advertising, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 97; targeted, 244
affordances, 7, 11–12, 14, 38, 52–55, 57, 81; digital, 11, 13, 14, 53, 212; technical, 80, 83
Africa, 21, 48, 50, 124, 141, 142; East Africa, 56; eastern, 50. See also South Africa
aggression, 75, 96; online, 243; political, 134; verbal, 23
Ahmed, Sara, 67
alignment episodes, 26, 27, 30
Anderson, Benedict, 114
anger, 51, 64, 66, 70, 111n4, 132, 143, 235
anonymity, 7, 37–38, 42, 43, 53, 54, 77, 81, 95, 139, 165, 188, 241, 243. See also memes, and anonymity
Anonymous movement, 79, 82, 242
anthropology, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 50, 64, 96, 117, 120, 146, 147, 176, 251
Anti-Defamation League, 84–85
antisemitism, 27, 32, 75, 77–78, 84, 86, 88, 89–90, 156
authoritarianism, 10, 12, 44, 80, 117, 164, 240, 252
Bangstad, Sindre, 151
Barth, Fredrik, 141
belonging, 2, 30, 83, 111n17, 126, 139, 141, 143, 152, 157, 189; national, 29, 101, 120; unbelonging, 2, 138
Benjamin, Walter, 175
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 198, 205
bigotry, 27, 76, 78, 125, 126, 127, 131, 152, 176, 181
Biko, Steve, 3
blasphemy, 68, 200, 204, 206, 207; blasphemers, 199, 201, 205, 206, 207n4; blasphemy accusations, 195, 197, 198–99, 201, 202, 203–204, 205–207, 207n2; blasphemy cases, 199, 200, 206; blasphemy laws, 4, 197–98, 200–201, 206, 207; online, 14, 201–202, 203
blogs, 48, 136, 202, 211, 212, 241; bloggers, 36, 48; microblogging, 164, 165, 169, 171; reblogging, 170. See also Bloggers Association of Kenya (BAKE)
Bloggers Association of Kenya (BAKE), 56
Bolivia, 175, 179, 180, 183, 186; Bolivians, 180–81, 186; Bolivian immigrants, 76, 175–76, 178, 180, 182, 183–84, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190n2
Bosire, Dickson Bogonko, 48–49
Bourdieu, Pierre, 83
Britain First, 123
Brubaker, Rogers, 17n3
Byler, Darren, 163
carnival, 50, 51; carnivalesque tradition, 49, 50, 52
Casanova, Jose, 69
castes, 62, 65, 71n1, 97, 99, 105
censorship, 27, 45, 56, 148, 159n1, 170, 171, 252
Chadwick, Andrew, 213
challenges, normative, 4, 24, 26, 32
Chemaly, Soraya, 228
Chile, 76, 179, 180, 182–83, 186, 188; and anti-immigrant sentiment, 11, 178, 186, 187, 190n2; and Bolivia, 180–81; Chilean government, 179, 180; Chileans, 76, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183–84, 185, 186, 188, 189, 190n4; northern Chile, 176, 178, 179, 180, 187, 189. See also nortinos
China, 11, 39, 76, 100, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 249; western China, 163, 165, 167. See also muhei; Uyghurs; Xinjiang
Christianity, 99, 107, 147, 153, 197; anti-Christian stance, 146, 156, 159; pro-Christian stance, 150, 157, 159. See also trolling, Christian
citizenship, 14, 65, 66, 67, 100, 177, 178, 181, 183, 189, 199, 217, 223
Citron, Danielle Keats, 228
civility, 2, 3–4, 6, 8, 10, 16, 17n2, 36, 90, 137, 141, 164, 171, 229. See also incivility
class, 3, 15, 16, 29, 36, 69, 70, 80, 97, 114, 124, 177, 179, 181, 189, 198, 230; lower class, 36; middle class, 36, 38, 43, 71n1, 97, 98, 101, 202, 232; working class, 182
Coleman, Gabriella, 82, 176, 243
colonialism, 3, 5, 8, 11, 15, 16, 22, 63, 65, 68, 100, 228; colonial governance, 65; colonial histories, 11, 14, 15; colonial power, 11, 14, 15, 109; postcolonial period, 3, 63, 65, 70, 99, 111n31, 140, 166. See also decoloniality
communalism, 30, 60, 63, 65, 67, 68, 98
community, 12, 14, 26, 43, 61, 62, 66, 67, 75, 77, 78, 85, 114, 115, 124, 150, 152, 231, 234, 237; building of, 13, 17n2, 76, 115, 120, 139, 177; membership in, 83, 119–20, 152; exclusion from, 26; political, 24; social, 13, 76
Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act, 49, 56
Confederation of Voluntary Associations (COVA), 63, 68
conservatism, 28, 30, 95, 104, 126, 146, 166, 217, 237, 242, 243, 249, 250
Cooper, Frederick, 17n3
corruption, 34, 41, 44, 98, 100, 110n5, 202, 242
Csepeli, György, 29
cultural practice, 2, 12, 159, 228; subcultural practice, 77, 82, 88
Curato, Nicole, 35–36
Davutoğlu, Ahmet, 241, 248, 251
De Genova, Nicholas, 14
defamation, 56, 227; Anti-Defamation League, 84–85
democracy, 8, 9, 10, 22, 45, 48, 65, 68, 79–80, 91, 111n28, 114, 117, 142, 175, 177, 237, 241; agonistic, 49; antidemocratic sentiment, 10, 213, 224n3; democratic freedom, 2; democratic politics, 79; democratic principles, 57; democratic society, 155; democratic traditions, 14; liberal, 12, 61, 65, 70, 110, 224n2. See also Europe, European democracies, Indonesia, Indonesian democracy
Denmark, 1, 5, 11, 15, 17n4, 76, 100, 131, 132, 135, 137, 140, 143, 144n2, 144n5; Danes, 100, 132, 138, 141, 143; Danish extreme speech, 135; Danish government, 133, 134; Danish minorities, 135; Danish national identity, 132, 142, 143, 144n3; Danish politics, 144n2; Danish social media, 143n1
digital influencers, 21, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42–43, 104
discrimination, 3, 22, 31, 61, 62, 65, 68, 100, 124, 148, 152, 156, 166, 170, 181, 213; and hate speech, 26; discriminatory nationalism, 100; ethnic, 162, 171, 172; racialized, 76, 134, 176; regional, 165; religious, 172; structural, 141; urban-rural, 165
disinformation, 2, 4, 10, 12, 15, 21, 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44–45, 76, 164, 244, 245, 246; disinformation campaigns, 11, 36, 37, 39, 41–42; disinformation industry, 38; disinformation workers, 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44–45; disinformation studies, 35, 36; networked, 15, 35, 39–40, 42, 43
dissent, 4, 14, 44, 195; political, 90, 106; postpolitical, 89; progressive, 78, 79; symbolic, 80
diyu hei (local offense), 165, 167
doxing, 80, 115, 164, 245, 246
Duterte, Rodrigo, 34, 35–36, 40, 44, 45, 243; anti-Duterte groups, 39
equality, 3, 70; inequality, 181, 187; social, 175
Erdoğan, Tayyip, 15, 240, 241, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252; pro-Erdoğan discourse, 245, 248, 251
ethnicity, 15, 100, 155, 156, 159n2, 165, 181, 230. See also discrimination, ethnic; hatred, ethnic; humor, ethnic; identity, ethnic; minorities, ethnic
ethnography, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 21, 24, 31, 32, 35, 38, 41, 45, 60, 75, 76, 97, 102, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 146, 149, 164, 165, 187, 228, 241, 242, 248, 252; ethnographic fieldwork, 25, 96, 146; ethnographic interviews, 103, 104, 131; ethnographic methodology, 115, 120, 147, 148, 152, 176, 177; ethnographic space, 119, 120, 127; ethnographers, 31, 96, 115, 127
Europe, 1, 10, 23, 77, 140, 141, 142, 144n4, 152–55, 156, 158, 166, 170; Central, 143; Eastern, 21, 133; European civilization, 3; European culture, 147; European democracies, 12; Europeans, 125, 142, 147, 152, 155, 190n4; and nationalism, 99–100; northern, 76, 146–47, 149, 155; and far right, 77, 146, 159, 195. See also European Union
exclusion, 13, 54, 61, 62, 75, 79, 80, 96, 115, 126, 159n2, 181, 182, 224n3; exclusionary discourse, 1, 131, 189; exclusionary extreme speech, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 204; exclusionary ideologies, 13, 48, 76, 95; exclusionary politics, 2, 4, 11, 12, 13, 16; patterns of, 8; spaces of, 10. See also identity, exclusionary; nationalism, exclusionary
exploitation, 9, 21, 39, 41, 175, 179, 186
extremism, 76, 163, 172, 220; mainstream, 135; political, 2; separatist, 163
Facebook, 1, 14, 22, 34, 42, 44, 45, 55, 62, 77, 90, 98, 100, 101, 104–105, 110n7, 119, 148, 149, 154, 176, 182, 184, 201, 202, 212, 224, 227, 242, 244, 247; Facebook messenger, 167; and fake news, 36, 37, 38; and far right, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 221, 222, 223; groups, 39, 43, 103, 139; and hate speech, 48, 54, 55; images, 132, 133, 154; pages, 37, 42, 77, 104–105, 109, 111n8, 111n10, 111n16, 182, 195, 201, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 224n7; posts, 48, 136, 144n5, 176, 177, 183, 184, 187, 190n1; profiles, 138
fact-checking, 45, 75, 96, 101, 245, 251
fake news, 7, 34, 35, 36, 40, 131, 227, 245, 251; fake news websites, 45
Fish, Stanley, 24
fishing, 165. See also phishing
flaming, 115
floating signifiers, 78, 80, 84, 88–89, 90
folk right, 76, 146–48, 149, 152–53, 154–55, 156, 157, 158–59
forcing functions, 53
Forment, Carlos, 15
forums, 54, 81, 147, 148, 164, 169, 182, 189, 248; subforums, 77, 148
Foucault, Michel, 54, 118, 124
4Chan, 13, 75, 77–78, 80–83, 84–86, 87, 88–90, 91n1, 109
France, 17n4, 152, 213, 218, 221
Fransen, Jayda, 123
Fraser, Nancy, 213, 214, 224n3
free speech, 21, 24, 28, 69, 104, 148
fringe, 77, 90, 111n17, 159, 168, 195, 212
Fuchs, Christian, 100
fun, 16, 41, 51, 76, 95–97, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109–10, 125, 136, 172; as metapractice, 13, 75, 80, 96, 101–102, 109, 110; and violence, 99, 102
Gab, 147, 148–49, 150, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158
Gandhi, Rahul, 111n28
Ganti Presiden movement, 230, 234
Gazali, Effendi, 228
Geertz, Clifford, 114
gender, 15, 16, 43, 83, 177, 181, 232, 234, 236, 237; gendered abuse, 228, 234, 235; gendered discourse, 196, 228, 233, 237; gender equality, 250; gender norms, 229, 237; transgender people, 38, 43, 119; and trolling, 242, 246. See also identity, gendered
Germany, 1, 5, 147, 153, 154, 200, 217, 218, 220, 221, 223, 224n7, 243; Alternative für Deutschland (AfD, Alternative for Germany), 111n16, 211, 212, 213, 216, 217; and antisemitism, 27; East Germany, 221; and far right, 111n16, 195, 212–13, 215, 216, 217, 222, 223, 224; Germans, 154, 212; and refugees, 14, 211
Gerung, Rocky, 228
Gezi Park, 240, 241, 242, 244–45, 247
Ginsburg, Faye, 7
Global North, 8
Global Social Media Impact Study (GSMIS), 177
Global South, 8, 9, 39, 56, 100
globalism, neoliberal, 11
globalization, 2, 11, 15, 29, 100, 141, 152, 154
Goodenough, Ward H., 139
Green, Joshua, 183
Gül, Abdullah, 251; Gülenism, 242, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251
Guldi, Jo, 115
Habermas, Jürgen, 214
hacking, 42, 82, 242, 243, 244, 245; attention hacking, 36, 40, 42
Hage, Ghassan, 155
Hall, Bradford, 26
Han, Rongbin, 39
harassment, 41, 140, 170, 172, 222; online, 56, 171, 243
Hardaker, Claire, 242
harmony, 51, 67, 69; communal, 63, 68
hashtags, 37, 42, 44, 96, 97, 103–104, 148, 152, 156, 170, 229–30, 234, 235, 244, 247
hatred, 3, 5, 11, 27, 28–29, 31, 32, 49, 50, 78, 126, 152; ethnic, 162, 171; political, 6
Haynes, Nell, 13
headscarves (hijab), 196, 229, 231, 232, 234, 235, 236, 245, 250
Heald, Suzette, 50
Hecht, Gabrielle, 52
Hervik, Peter, 13, 32, 100, 187
hilarity, 42, 102, 103, 104, 108, 109. See also humor; joking
Hinduism, 63, 69, 70, 110n6, 197, 203; Hindu community, 68; Hindu gods, 63; Hindu majority, 60, 61, ; Hindu majoritarianism, 98; Hindu nationalism, 1, 60, 61, 62, 64, 67, 68, 69, 75, 95, 96–97, 98–99, 101, 106, 107, 108–109, 110n2, 244; Hindu religion, 70; Hindu right-wing, 1, 60, 95, 97, 98; Hindu temples, 67; Hindutva, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104–105, 106, 107–108, 111n17. See also India, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
Hochschild, Arlie, 35
Hu, Yong, 164
human rights, 23, 28, 198, 236, 237, 249; Annual Report on the Situation of Human Rights, 188. See also Pakistan, Human Rights Commission of Pakistan
humor, 1, 13, 41, 42, 48, 51–52, 75, 78, 82, 88, 89, 90, 97, 103, 108–109, 111n28, 115, 138, 151, 152, 156, 168, 175–76, 177–78, 184, 186, 187, 188–89; ethnic, 13, 76, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171; gay, 38, 43. See also hilarity; joking; memes; muhei, muhei stickers
Hungary, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29–30, 31, 32, 213, 218; Hungarian Constitution, 28; Hungarian hate speech debates, 27, 30, 32; Hungarian politics, 21, 24, 25, 28, 31; Hungarian public discourse, 24, 27; Hungarian right wing, 28
Huntington, Samuel, 139
ibuism, 232
identitarianism, 149, 151, 152, 153; identitarian movement (IM), 152, 154, 159, 212, 216
identity, 6, 13, 16, 38, 39, 40, 77, 95, 110, 139, 157, 187; collective, 76, 90, 147, 152, 214, 221, 223; construction of, 146, 147, 152, 156; ethnic, 8, 167, 231; exclusionary, 109; gendered, 43, 229, 230, 231, 237, 250; group, 67, 69, 75, 189, 223; identity politics, 228, 230; national, 29, 100, 132, 147; political, 31, 79, 164, 248; religious, 63, 68, 163, 228, 230, 231; social, 79, 109; women’s, 231
immigrants, 1, 8, 124, 132, 141, 180, 182, 183, 186, 187; anti-immigrant discourse, 11, 76, 127, 132, 140, 146, 154, 155–56, 159, 175–76, 178, 181, 182, 183, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190n2, 250; non-European, 154. See also Bolivia, Bolivian immigrants
imperialism, cultural, 14, 250
incivility, 4, 6, 9, 10, 55, 76, 171, 172, 229; and hate speech, 49, 54, 57, 251; in social media, 49–50, 51, 52, 57, 164–65; physical, 65
India, 1, 3, 8, 16, 22, 45, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 75, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 109, 110n3, 110n7, 114, 231, 244; Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarti Parishad (ABVP, All India Student Association), 95, 98, 104, 110n2, 111n8; All India Majlis-e Ittehadul Muslimeen (All India Council of the Union of Muslims, AIMIM), 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70; Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), 64, 69–70, 71n1, 97, 98, 99, 104, 110n5, 111n10, 111n28; British, 65, 68, 69; and extreme speech, 9, 15; and memes, 104, 106; Indian army, 99, 106; Indian history, 68, 99; Indian National Congress Party, 62, 63, 110n5, 111n28; Indian nation-state, 60, 61, 62, 65, 68; Indian Penal Code (IPC), 62, 69, 198, 200; Indian politics, 60, 68, 69, 70, 101, 102, 103, 104, 107; Indian polity, 62, 63, 64, 67, 70; Indian secularism, 67, 68; Indian society, 63, 70; postcolonial, 99; Rashtriya Swyam Seveka Sangha (RSS, Association of National Volunteers), 110n2, 110n6, 111n10; and right wing, 5, 11. See also Delhi; Muslims, Indian; New Delhi
indigeneity, 176, 180, 181; anti-indigenous feelings, 182; indigenous people, 76, 176, 178, 180–81, 182–83, 186, 190n4; indigenous vocabularies, 32
Indonesia, 8, 15, 196, 227, 229, 231, 232, 233, 237; Indonesian citizens, 227, 236; Indonesian democracy, 227, 235; Indonesian police, 234, 235; Indonesian presidential elections, 227, 228, 230; Indonesian social media, 228, 229; New Order, 227, 228, 232; Old Order, 228; Reformasi (Reformation), 227, 228, 232, 236, 237; women’s role in, 228, 229, 231–32, 234, 236
in-groups, 82–83, 132, 172, 189, 223. See also out-groups
instant messaging, 76, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169
insults, 48, 49, 50, 51, 69, 83, 103, 118, 121, 165, 199, 244, 246
intention, 35, 207, 224n3; intention clause, 200, 207
interlocks, 53
Internet Research Agency, 243, 244
intertextuality, 83, 177, 178, 187
Iran, 248; Iranian refugees, 211
irony, 8, 24, 30, 80, 82, 83, 88, 89, 106, 150, 154, 157, 167, 171, 172, 189
Islam, 68, 123, 140, 142, 155, 156, 165, 166, 198, 201, 203, 207n1, 213, 220, 232–33, 234, 237, 240, 249; anti-Islam discourse, 146, 157, 158, 159, 222, 224n6; Islamists, 230, 242, 248, 249, 250, 251; Islamization, 152, 170, 198, 205, 212, 213, 215; Islamophobia, 76, 117, 123, 154, 156, 164, 166, 169, 170, 172. See also Muslims; Quran; Sunna; Sunni
Jenkins, Henry, 183
jingoism, 106
joking, 14, 50, 110, 184; joking relationships (utani), 50–51. See also hilarity; humor
Jokowi (Joko Widodo), 228, 229, 230, 232–33, 234, 235, 236
journalism, 41, 64, 65, 81, 109, 111n31, 115, 131; journalists, 38, 40, 41, 45, 61, 65, 69, 77, 91, 102, 103, 114, 119, 122, 169, 243, 246, 251, 252
Kelly, Tobias, 15
Kenya, 1, 8, 9, 15, 21, 55; and extreme speech, 49; Kenyan ethnic groups, 51; Kenyan government, 53, 56; Kenyan politics, 48; Kenyan radio talk shows, 36; and social media, 54, 55; western, 50
Kenyatta, Uhuru, 48
Khan, Tabussum Ruhi, 68
Kumar, Sangeet, 106
Larkin, Brian, 7
Latour, Bruno, 52
Leibold, James, 166
liberalism, 65, 79, 90, 117; antiliberalism, 79, 90; neoliberalism, 80. See also democracy, liberal; globalism, neoliberal; public sphere, liberal; subjectivity, neoliberal
lies, 13, 76, 115, 116, 117, 120–21, 123, 124, 127, 235
Lipstadt, Deborah, 127
localities, 212, 213, 214, 217, 223
lockouts, 55
majoritarianism, 14, 60, 61, 64, 70, 95, 98, 199; religious, 11, 109
Marcuse, Herbert, 10
Mardani Ali Sera, 230
marginalization, 11, 68, 76, 78, 79, 80, 137, 152, 176, 178, 179, 180, 207, 212, 213, 214, 224n3; marginalized groups, 4, 176, 182, 183, 189, 198, 212; nested, 181–82, 189
May, Theresa, 123
Mbembe, Achille, 51–52
memes, 13, 14, 37, 39, 43, 75, 77, 78–79, 81, 82–84, 85, 90, 104, 105–107, 109, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151–52, 153–54, 155, 156, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 183–84, 185, 186–89, 236; and anonymity, 152, 186; anti-Christian, 156; anti-immigrant, 76, 156, 176, 183, 187; anti-Islam, 158; antisemitic, 77, 84, 86, 89, 90; folk-right, 146, 149, 156, 157, 158, 159; humorous, 76, 175, 177, 186, 188; MEGA, 154, 155, 156; Meme Fest, 105; meme making, 97, 101, 102, 104, 111n28, 146, 152, 159, 243; meme subculture, 82, 83, 91n3; memetic antagonism, 13, 75, 78, 80, 85, 88, 90; memetic logic, 79, 83; memetic versatility, 84; misogynistic, 40; political, 79, 80, 89, 90, 106, 108. See also Pepe the Frog
metadiscourse, 21, 32; of hate speech, 24, 25, 26, 30, 31, 32
migrants, 1, 15, 123, 131, 132, 135, 139, 140, 143, 165, 175, 182. See also migration
migration, 99, 124, 149, 152, 163, 188. See also migrants
Mihelj, Sabina, 101
Milan, Stefania, 15
Miller, Daniel, 12, 52, 114, 176
minorities, 4, 11, 22, 24, 26, 63, 70–71, 127, 131, 132, 140, 141, 143, 165; ethnic, 23, 25, 31, 100, 162, 164, 166, 168, 170, 171, 172; minority communities, 75, 98, 99; minority politics, 60, 61, 63, 64, 69; racial, 23, 25, 31; religious, 62, 172, 198, 202. See also Denmark, Danish minorities; minoritarianism; Muslims, Muslim minorities; violence, antiminority
minzu tuanjie (ethnic unity), 167, 170
misogyny, 36, 40, 115, 117, 125, 228
modernity, 175, 181, 189; capitalist, 70; colonial, 8; cultural, 180
Modi, Narendra, 61, 62, 70, 97–98, 100, 102, 103–104, 110nn4–5, 114
moral economy, 60, 61, 64, 68–69, 70, 206
moral responsibility, 24, 40, 45
Morozov, Evgeny, 252
motherhood, 196, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 237; institution of, 228, 236, 237; and politics, 234, 236, 237
mothers, 229, 230, 233, 235, 236; image of, 231, 232, 234, 236, 237; political participation of, 231, 232, 234; status, 228, 237
Mouffe, Chantal, 9, 10, 49, 78, 79–80, 83, 84, 90, 100
Muhammad (Prophet), 132, 144n2, 198–200, 201, 206, 207
muhei, 164, 165–66, 167, 169–72, 172n1; muhei stickers, 13, 167, 168, 171
Murray, Billie, 214
Muslims, 9, 61, 62, 65, 68, 69, 76, 133, 139, 140–41, 169, 171, 197, 202, 203, 228, 230, 233, 234; anti-Muslim sentiment, 60, 69, 101, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 132, 144n2, 158–59, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 249; Indian, 61–62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70; Muslim communities, 1, 13, 61, 67, 99; Muslim minorities, 60, 61–62, 63, 68, 97, 99, 162, 163, 164, 165–66, 167, 168, 171; Muslim politics, 61, 62, 63, 70. See also India, All India Majlis-e Ittehadul Muslimeen (All India Council of the Union of Muslims, AIMIM); Uyghurs
National Socialist movement, 147, 151, 153, 155
nationalism, 11, 70, 97, 100, 109, 124, 126, 140, 180, 186; banal, 101, 134; exclusionary, 96, 100; hot, 101; hypernationalism, 103; neonationalism, 1, 100, 132, 142, 166; online, 11, 13, 99, 109, 115; print, 114, 115; racist, 78; right-wing, 1, 11; secular, 62; violent, 31, 100, 102; white, 13, 109, 126. See also Hinduism, Hindu nationalism; populism, nationalist
nation-talk, 101
nativism, 125, 127, 146, 151, 154, 155, 159
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 10, 22, 60, 64
nongovernmental organizations, 69, 162, 203
Nordicism, 76, 141–42, 147, 148, 150, 159
North America, 1, 12, 99, 147, 152, 153, 159, 166
North Korea, 117–18
nortinos (northern Chileans), 76, 175–80, 181, 182, 183, 188, 189
Nussbaum, Martha, 64
Obama, Barack, 106, 111n16, 121, 139
Ogude, James, 48
Okengo, Alan Wadi, 48–49
othering, 63, 76, 80, 85, 89, 90
out-groups, 83, 86, 90, 132, 214, 223
Owaisi, Akbaruddin, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71nn1–2
Owaisi, Asaduddin, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68
pagan religion, 154–55, 157; pagan gods, 154, 158; white pagan nation fantasy, 146, 153, 155, 156, 158
Pakistan, 8, 15, 106, 109, 144n2, 162, 195, 198, 200, 203, 205, 207, 207n1; Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 200; Muttehida Quami Movement (MQM), 109; Pakistani government, 201; Pakistani history, 204; Pakistani ideology, 198; Pakistani society, 198; Pakistani state, 199, 204; Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), 198; Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA), 201; Supreme Court of Pakistan, 199
Paludan, Rasmus, 17n4
parody, 105, 106, 107, 108, 183
Pegida, 1, 111n16, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217–18, 219, 220, 221, 222–24, 224n6
Pelikan group, 241, 247, 248, 249, 251; Pelikan Declaration, 241
Pepe the Frog, 79, 84–85, 86, 87, 88, 91n6, 246
performativity, 13, 110, 177, 195, 204, 205, 207; linguistic, 6
phenotype, 181
Philippines, the, 12, 21, 34–35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 243
Phillips, Whitney, 82, 242, 244, 252
phishing, 245. See also fishing
physical spaces, 196, 213, 217, 218, 221, 224; and far-right, 215; and Facebook, 195, 211, 212, 214, 216, 221, 222, 223
Pilkington, Hillary, 35
Piñera, Sebastián, 187
pluralism, 80; agonistic, 79, 90
Pohjonen, Matti, 36, 64, 65, 117, 124, 152, 204, 212, 251
polarization, 45, 104, 110n4, 159, 168, 203, 227–28, 246; and extreme speech, 49, 120, 196; political, 111n16, 230
political economy, 3, 11, 14, 15
politics, 7, 10, 36, 41, 48, 51, 68, 79, 84, 97, 100, 102, 106, 108, 115, 120, 124, 127, 131, 177, 204, 243, 251; asylum, 213, 217; conflictual, 49; digital, 39, 106; exclusionary, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13, 16; global, 172, 240; and hate, 2, 4, 29, 57, 63; identity, 228, 230, 231; national, 100, 143; partisan, 14, 110n2; postpolitics, 78, 80; right-wing, 6, 12, 96, 146; and technology, 36, 50; technopolitics, 2, 7, 52. See also Denmark, Danish politics; Hungary, Hungarian politics; India, Indian politics; minorities, minority politics; Muslims, Muslim politics
populism, 11, 12, 14, 34, 35, 44, 76, 77, 78, 84, 88, 89, 97, 100, 131, 159, 195, 217; majoritarian, 61, 64; nationalist, 90, 132; populist politicians, 10, 12, 13, 90, 100; populist publics, 35, 36; populist rhetoric, 89, 90; right-wing, 10, 80, 100, 212
Post, Robert, 3
Prabowo Subianto, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235–36, 237
Prevention of Electronic Crime Act (PECA), 201
public sphere, 80, 117, 197, 206, 213–14, 224, 224n3, 228; liberal, 68; networked, 211–12, 213, 214
publics, 8, 11, 35, 84, 164, 166, 171, 181, 204, 212, 213–14; counterpublics, 212, 213, 214, 224, 224n3
race, 3, 15, 16, 69, 76, 114, 120, 125, 126, 138, 141, 146, 154, 155, 159n2, 175, 177, 181, 189; and religion, 147, 154, 230
racialization, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 139, 141, 143, 156, 175, 178, 180, 181, 183, 186; racialized difference, 13, 132; racialized groups, 14; racialized order, 3; racialized prejudice, 15; racialized reasoning, 13; racialized speech, 1, 135. See also discrimination, racialized
racism, 23, 31, 115, 120, 125–26, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136–38, 139, 142–43, 144n4, 155–56, 159, 181; antiracism, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 124, 126, 133; biological, 15; cultural, 142; differentialist, 100; entitlement, 158, 159; everyday, 133; and hate speech, 26, 29, 117; neoracism, 100, 132, 139, 142, 143, 144n4; racist behavior, 124; racist groups, 123; racist ideas, 124; racist speech, 24, 25, 32, 40, 126, 142, 189; racists, 32, 123, 127, 132, 137, 142; structural, 134. See also blackface; nationalism, racist
Rawls, John, 64
recruitment, 81, 97, 111n28, 132, 212, 223, 224
Reddit, 148
refugees, 131, 132, 135, 141, 211; antirefugee sentiment, 14, 140, 196, 211, 212, 217–18, 219, 221, 222, 223, 224; non-European, 155; refugee shelters, 195, 215, 217–18, 220, 221, 223, 224. See also Germany, and refugees; Iran, Iranian refugees; Syria, Syrian refugees
religion, 15, 68, 69, 70, 100, 139, 155, 156, 157, 165, 168, 180, 198, 202, 228, 229, 230, 236, 249; and politics, 68; and race, 147, 154, 230; religious actors, 14; religious beliefs, 69, 171; religious communities, 63; religious debates, 207; religious groups, 14; religious histories, 15, 16; religious laws, 14; religious majoritarians, 109, 199; religious offenses, 198; religious policies, 162, 166, 168, 171; religious practices, 163; religious right, 198; religious zealots, 200. See also Christianity; discrimination, religious; Hinduism; identity, religious; Islam; majoritarianism, religious; minorities, religious; pagan religion; violence, religious
resentment, 22, 35, 60–61, 64, 65, 66, 70, 71, 124, 127, 163, 168. See also ressentiment
ressentiment, 10–11, 22, 60, 64, 70, 71. See also resentment
Richards, Patricia, 181
right-wing sentiment, 11, 16, 90, 96, 103, 109, 122, 146; activists, 102, 104; alt-right, 12, 13, 75, 77, 78, 84, 91, 109, 147, 243, 244, 248; groups, 76, 100, 147, 217; ideologies, 11, 13; mobilization, 14, 95, 109; movements, 10, 11, 13, 15, 75, 96, 99, 109, 110, 110n2; rancor, 11, 14; regime, 96, 107. See also activism, right-wing; Hinduism, Hindu right wing; Hungary, Hungarian right-wing; nationalism, right-wing; politics, right-wing; populism, right-wing
Rogers, Richard, 120
Roland, L. Kaifa, 125
rumors, 1, 4, 75, 98, 140, 162, 165, 207
Sampson, Robert, 214
Sanders, Sarah Huckabee, 122, 123, 127
Santiago, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 189
sarcasm, 13, 102, 103, 106, 107, 120, 233
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 89
Schmidt, Mária, 29
Schroeder, Ralph, 100
Shifman, Limor, 149
SIM cards, 53–54
Sina Weibo, 165, 168, 169, 170–71
slang, 77, 81, 82, 83, 91n8, 186, 245
Slater, Don, 12
Smith, Adam, 64
social media platforms, 21, 36, 75, 76, 77, 116, 117, 119, 120, 143, 148, 164, 165, 166, 169, 170, 171, 175, 195, 196, 211–12, 213, 214, 228, 232, 243. See also Facebook; 4Chan; Gab; Reddit; Sina Weibo; Telegram; Tencent QQ; TikTok; Tumblr; Twitter; WeChat; WhatsApp; YouTube
socialists, 28. See also National Socialist movement
Soros, George, 32, 91n7, 139, 249
speech acts, 2, 4, 6, 23, 206; extreme, 9, 10, 15, 96, 204, 205, 207; illocutionary, 204–205; locutionary, 204; multimodal, 81; performative, 205; perlocutionary, 204, 205; speech act theory, 197
subjectivity, 9, 11, 80, 181, 204; elite, 189; neoliberal, 11; political, 6, 80, 101
surveillance, 56, 102, 143, 163, 164, 240, 241, 252
Syria, 241, 248, 251; Syrian refugees, 196, 250–51
Tarapacá, 175, 178, 179, 182, 186, 188, 190n2
technology, 2, 7–8, 10, 14, 34, 36, 53, 56–57, 78, 97, 114, 115, 119, 147, 163, 187; communication, 165, 182; counterfeit, 9, 56; digital, 12, 53, 114, 116, 127, 201; disciplinary, 163; duplication, 56; efficiency, 54; identification, 53, 54; liberation, 12; safety, 55, 56; social media, 49, 52, 53, 131; sociotechnology, 14, 202, 204; technological artifacts, 7, 50, 52. See also lock-ins; lockouts; politics, and technology; politics, technopolitics
terrorism, 2, 31, 76, 123, 149, 152, 163, 168; antiterrorism, 202, 208n14; terrorists, 121, 127, 165, 166, 170, 250
TikTok, 98
Trere, Emiliano, 15
triple parentheses, 75, 77, 78, 81, 82, 85–86, 87, 88–89, 90, 91n6
trolling, 10, 13, 36, 38, 40, 44, 80, 81, 82, 85, 115, 165, 169, 241–43, 244, 246; AKTrolls, 16, 240, 241–42, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249–51; alt-right, 77; paid, 21, 37, 39, 102, 196; political, 35, 41, 43, 44, 45, 240, 241–42, 243–44, 247, 248, 251–53; troll armies, 34, 196, 240; troll networks, 15, 240; trolls, 38, 40, 43, 84, 103, 109, 196, 240–43, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 252; Christian, 157, 159. See also Twitter, and trolls
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph, 118
Trump, Donald, 10, 16, 90, 91n7, 115, 117, 120, 123, 124–25, 126–27; and lies, 13, 116, 120–22; presidency, 34, 114, 115, 116, 126, 155, 156; supporters, 121, 122, 126, 170, 206, 247; and Twitter, 13, 76, 109, 116, 117–19, 120, 122–23, 124, 125, 126, 127
Tufekci, Zeynep, 213
Turkey, 12, 15, 196, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244–45, 246, 247–49, 250, 251, 252; Justice and Development Party (AKP), 240, 241, 242, 245, 247, 249–50, 251; Saadet Party, 249–50; Turkish activists, 213; Turkish government, 196, 240, 248; Turkish policies, 247; Turkish state, 249, 251
Turner, Fred, 117
Twitter, 22, 36, 38, 42, 44, 54, 55, 63, 97, 98, 102, 103, 104, 105, 115, 119–20, 122, 124, 126, 127, 147, 148, 154, 159, 163, 169–70, 171, 176, 201, 213, 227, 235, 242, 244, 246, 247; accounts, 37, 39, 111n8, 116, 121, 245, 252–53; data, 177, 229; groups, 243; hacking, 245; rules, 117–18, 123; and trolls, 77, 196, 246, 248; users, 111n16, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 149. See also Trump, Donald J., and Twitter
Udupa, Sahana, 24, 36, 64, 65, 117, 124, 152, 186, 204, 212, 251
United Kingdom, 114, 123, 127, 179, 243, 245
United States, 12, 13, 15, 23, 24, 32, 76, 100, 109, 114, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 146, 163, 166, 170, 179, 198, 231, 233, 243, 244, 246–47, 248; US citizens, 114, 126; US Constitution, 116; US elections, 77, 79, 81, 84, 111n16, 114, 244; US history, 118; US military, 119, 121, 125; US politics, 88, 124, 126; US power, 125; US society, 125
universalism, 150, 154, 155, 156, 159n2
Uyghurs, 162–63, 164, 165–66, 167, 170, 171, 249
van Dijk, Teun, 187
Van Maanen, John, 31
ventriloquism, 5, 49–50, 51, 52–53, 57
Verkaaik, Oskar, 109
vigilantes, 60, 110n2, 204; vigilante justice, 14, 200, 201
violence, 9, 11, 54, 75–76, 85, 99, 114, 115, 122, 126, 131, 146, 162, 163; anti-immigrant, 188; antiminority, 98, 170; anti-Muslim, 1, 65; cultural, 135; culture of, 44; and extreme speech, 6, 7, 49, 135, 204, 228; extremist, 78; far-right, 211, 224n1; group, 63; indirect, 135; mass, 3, 63; mob, 61, 201; physical, 1, 12, 135; political, 6; psychological, 135; religious, 200; and social media, 115, 117; and the state, 3, 61, 204; structural, 22, 61, 65; symbolic, 182; vigilante, 60, 204; violent incidents, 6, 76, 81, 101, 114, 115, 127, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171, 188, 224; violent nationalism, 31, 100, 102; violent regimes, 6; violent speech, 6, 48; xenophobic, 1. See also fun, and violence
vitriol, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 49, 64, 77, 101, 110, 152, 204, 228, 242; vitriolic cultures, 5, 8; vitriolic speech, 2, 5, 11, 12, 126, 142, 212, 221, 228, 229
Voice of Ram, 106
volunteers, 41, 60, 75, 96, 97, 98–99, 101, 104, 111n17, 230, 232, 241
Walz, Tim, 127
WeChat, 119, 165, 167, 168, 171
WhatsApp, 1, 98, 104, 110n7, 167, 176, 203, 234
white supremacy, 15, 31, 76, 82, 126, 127, 159
Winner, Langdon, 52
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 80, 81, 86
women, 111n28, 140, 155, 188, 196, 229, 231, 244; attacks on, 104, 196, 234, 237, 243, 245, 250; marginalization of, 198; and role in domestic domain, 231–32, 234, 236, 237; and role in politics, 228, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237; transgender, 43; womanhood, 14; women’s bodies, 196. See also motherhood; mothers; Women’s Congress
Women’s Congress, 231
World War II, 3, 125, 132; post-World War period, 117, 125; pre-World War II period, 147
xenophobia, 1, 16, 25, 32, 77, 90, 117, 138, 139, 143, 182, 189
Xinjiang, 162–64, 165, 166, 171, 249
Young, Kevin, 124
YouTube, 9, 104, 148, 155, 212, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233
Zuckerman, Ethan, 79
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