NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. I thank Jimmy Pimienta, vice president of France-MABATT for kindly drawing my attention to the transcripts of that speech. The transcript of the French-language speech was published in the organization’s mouthpiece (Hassan Cohen, “Los Judeo Españoles,” 1–3.)

2. Muslims were expelled later than Jews, between 1609 and 1614. The commemoration of the 1492 events became a modern way of protesting self-pride among Sephardi Jews already in 1892, when Ottoman Jews, for example, sent delegates to Chicago for the four-hundred-year anniversary of Christopher Columbus’s discovery of a “new world” (see Cohen, Becoming Ottomans, 45–73).

3. The French organization added a T to indicate the participation of Tetouan natives in addition to those of Tangier origins.

4. The expression lo nuestro differentiated the Spanish-speaking communities from the forasteros, literally foreigners—another common expression in the communal speech that referred to the Toshavim or the native Arabic- and Tamazight-speaking communities in the southern parts of Morocco (Moreno, Europe from Morocco, 35, 39, 43).

5. It should be noted that the word Sephardim in Hebrew in fact means both Sephardim and Spaniards.

6. Hassan Cohen, “Los Judeo Españoles,” 1.

7. Hispanic is a term used in various historical and geographical contexts to mark linguistic and cultural ties with the Spanish-speaking world. Alexander and Bentolila, La (See Alexander and Bentolila, La Palabra en su Hora, 9–10).

8. Moreno, “Beyond the Nation-State,” 1–21.

9. On Melilla, see Benhamú Jiménez, La Jaquetía de la Comunidad Judía de Melilla; on Casablanca, see Tsur, A Torn Community, 46–47, 171.

10. Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, 45; see also Alarcón, Diario de un Testigo.

11. Pulido, Españoles Sin Patria.

12. In the final division of Morocco between France and Spain in November 1912, Tangier’s future was left uncertain due to conflicting geopolitical interests between France and Great Britain. For more on the colonial divisions of Morocco and the status of Tangier, see Gilson Miller, A History, 88.

13. Albet Mas, “Three Gods,” 585, 595; 592, 598; Calderwood, Colonial Al-Andalus, 5; Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 91; Mateo-Dieste, La ‘hermandad’ hispano-marroquí, 25.

14. Gilson Miller, A History, 104–10.

15. Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, 52; Schroeter, “Philo-Sephardism,” 184.

16. Weisz, Jews and Muslims, 2; Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, 45–53, 56–57; Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 7; Calderwood, Colonial Al-Andalus; Friedman, “Reconstructing,” 65.

17. See, for example, Elbaz, “Looking at the ‘Other’”; Rohr, “The Use of Antisemitism,” 4.

18. Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 9; Mateo-Dieste, La ‘hermandad’ hispano-marroquí.

19. Chetrit, “Judeo-Arabic,” 277; Rodrigue mentions, based on the AIU reports, that at least two-thirds of the communities in the north still spoke Haketia in 1903 (see Rodrigue, Jews and Muslims, 127–28.)

20. Bénichou, “Observaciones,” 209–58.

21. Pinto Abecasis, The Peacock, xii.

22. For a more global perspective on the implications of that connection see Benmayor and Kandiyoti, “Ancestry,” 219–25; Armistead, “Judeo-Spanish,” 98–106; Zytnicki, Les Juifs; Schroeter, “The Shifting Boundaries,” 145–164; Silverman et al., Romances Judeo-Españoles, 8.

23. Bernecker and Cook, “The Change in Mentalities,” 67–68.

24. At the time, a new scholarship argued that clustering groups according to their geographic “origins” or “ancestries,” and their traditional “local identities” before the advent of colonialism, was itself a discursive production of colonialism and nationalism (see, for example, Axel, “The Context of Diaspora,” 31; Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 11.)

25. Bodenhamer, “Narrating Space,” 7–27; Azaryahu and Alderman, “Historical Space,” 179–94.

26. Gil, The Disenchantment, 12.

27. See, for example, Clifford, “Diasporas,” 306, 325; Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 2. Scholars in the field began to interrogate the diaspora-homeland axis in the contexts of Jewish immigration to Israel, postcolonial migration, and globalization. André Levy’s work is an important example of this new outlook as it has evolved since the 1990s, influencing the scholarship on MENA Jews. He criticizes what he calls the “solar-system model” of homeland-diaspora relations while exploring the Moroccan Jewish experience in Casablanca at the turn of the twenty-first century, a time when almost all local Jews had left for Israel and France, the primary centers of the emerging Jewish Moroccan diaspora (Levy, Return to Casablanca, 146–72). Other works examine the complexities of establishing new Jewish communities in Ottoman Palestine prior to the British Mandate (see, e.g., Lehmann, “Rethinking Sephardi Identity,” 81–109; Bartal, Galut in the Land.)

28. Bahar and Halperin, “Diasporas from the Middle East,” 215–21. Recent scholarship has begun to apply a more global lens to colonial histories of the Middle East (see, e.g., Kozma, Schayegh, and Wishnitzer, eds., A Global Middle East; Arsan, Karam, and Khater, “On Forgotten Shores,” 6–7.)

29. Campos, Bashkin, and Sternfeld, “MENA Jewry after,” 10-11.

30. Sperling, “Conceptualising ‘Inter-Destination Transnationalism,’” 1097–115.

31. See, for example, Hissong, Nationalism and Jewish Identity; Sternfeld, Between Iran and Zion; Schulze, The Jews of Lebanon.

32. The ethnic assertion of MENA Jews in Israel is commonly labeled under the category Mizrahim. This is due to privileging universal models of ethnic, racial, and postcolonial minority struggles that view them as a domestic development comparable to the Black civil rights movement in the US, or to struggles against postcolonial hierarchies in the Global South (see, for example, Roby, The Mizrahi Era, 10; Shalom Chetrit, Intra-Jewish Conflict.)

33. The post-1945 period in Jewish-Muslim relations is referred to by Meddeb and Stora as “the Great Rupture in the Middle East” (Meddeb and Stora, A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations, 375–444). See also Bensoussan, Jews in Arab Countries; Stillman, The Jews of Arab, 141–253; Abitbol and Astro, “The Integration,” 248–61.

34. From the viewpoint of many sociologists, as well as critical theorists like Ella Shohat who were pioneers in offering a universalize analytical framework of Mizrahi studies, Sephardi and other MENA Jewish immigrant communities in France, Latin America, and the US have been seemingly regarded as too marginal, in terms of their political and demographic weigh, to be included in comparisons of the Israeli and non-Israeli cases. Shohat analyzed the more recent histories of twentieth-century displacements of Jews from MENA countries through the lens of Arab-Jewish/Palestinian-Israeli political tensions and the uprooting of communities by nationalist entities but rarely addressed the recent history of MENA Jewish communities in the Americas, even in studies that directly treat the topic of Arab-Muslim displacements in South America. Instead, her work examined the premodern experiences of both Jews and Muslims with Sepharad/Al-Andalus as the major frame of reference (see Alsultany and Shohat, eds., Between the Middle East and the Americas). See also Shohat, Taboo Memories, Diasporic Voices; On the Arab-Jew, 17–19; Shohat, “Sephardim in Israel,” 1–35.)

35. Cohen and Schwartz, “Scholarship on Moroccan Jews,” 592–612; Brodsky, Sephardi, Jewish, Argentine; Katz, The Burdens of Brotherhood. Interest in these communities as part of the Jewish diaspora arose in some works by demographer Sergio Della Pergola, who offered a quantitative demographic analysis (see Della Pergola, “‘Sephardi and Oriental’”).

36. Evri, The Return to Al-Andalus, 9, 48. Along these lines, a recent book by Alisa Meyuhas Ginio, a scholar of the Sephardi diaspora, dwells on the loss of identity among native Sephardi populations in Palestine following the establishment of Israel, marking that very separation in its analysis (see Meyuhas Ginio, Between Sepharad and Jerusalem); Schroeter, “From Sephardi to Oriental,” 125–48.

37. For recent studies on Sephardi diasporas in a global Ottoman context, see Mays, Forging Ties, Forging Passports; Karkason, “The Iberian Diasporas,” 319–51; Goldstein Sabah, Baghdadi Jewish, 55–56, 81–84, 101–02. See also Lehmann, Emissaries from the Holy Land; Philips Cohen and Abrevaya Stein, Sephardi Lives; Campos, Ottoman Brothers; Benbassa and Rodrigue, Sephardi Jewry. These seminal studies on the Sephardi diaspora do not breach the question of mass migration in the second half of the twentieth century. Consequently, much of the literature exploring the dispersion of MENA Jews in the second half of the twentieth century focuses on immigration to Israel, which it frames as a sui generis migration, unrelated to earlier and parallel Jewish and non-Jewish global migrations. Historians operating in this vein emphasize the role of (Ashkenazi) Israeli-directed initiatives to transport and absorb Jews from MENA countries and on (usually negative) experiences of immigration rather than exploring Israel as one important hub connected to many others (see, for example, Bashkin, Impossible Exodus, 23–28; Meir Glitzenstein, The Magic Carpet.)

38. See, for example, Chen Dekel, “Rethinking Boundaries,” 77–88; Kobrin, Jewish Bialystok. In some correlation, there has been a conspicuous lack of work on immigration to Israel from places across the MENA region that produced only a small number of immigrants to Israel, such as northern Morocco, northern Tunisia, and Algeria, to name a few. One of the only books dedicated to the history of the northern Moroccan Jewish community mentions immigration to Israel only briefly (see Serels, A History, 171–73). Most studies concerning the community in Israel focus on contemporary issues of memory construction and folklore (see Pinto Abecasis, The Peacock; Cohen, “Recordar, Resistir.”)

39. Miccoli, ed., Contemporary Sephardic and Mizrahi Literature; Rossetto, “Mémoires de Diaspora”; Trevisan Semi, Miccoli, and Parfitt, eds., Memory and Ethnicity.

40. As was the case in Walter Zenner’s pioneering book on Jewish migrant communities from Aleppo in Israel, New York, and elsewhere. Although embedded in a theoretical framework, Zenner’s work does not deal with these communities as part of a diaspora, and the concept of homeland is underdiscussed (See: Zenner, A Global Community.)

41. Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain; Calderwood, Colonial Al-Andalus.

42. Quoted in Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 8.

43. Ennaji, Muslim Moroccan Migrants, 21; De Haas, “Morocco’s Migration Experience,” 47.

44. Bhatt, Goldberg, and Srivastava, “A Language-Based Method.”

45. Campoy Cubillo and Vizcaya, “Entering the Global Hispanophone,” 1–16.

46. Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 7; Alexander, “Beyond The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 1546.

47. Cohen, Global Diasporas, 11.

48. See, for example, Tsuda, “Conclusion: Diasporic Homecomings,” 325–50; Kasbarian, “The Myth and Reality of ‘Return,’” 358–81; Triandafyllidou and Veikou, “The Hierarchy of Greekness,” 189–208.

49. Ahrens and King, Onward Migration and Multi-Sited Transnationalism, v.

50. See Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 6; Miles and Sheffer, “Francophonie and Zionism,” 119–48; Cohen, Global Diasporas, 13.

51. Axel, “The Context of Diaspora,” 32. See also Brubaker’s “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora” critique of identifying groups as diasporic entities without establishing whether its putative members identify as such.

52. Cohen, Global Diasporas, 13; Wessendorf, “Pioneer Migrants, ” 17–34.

53. Sheffer, Diaspora Politics, 26.

54. Weich-Shahak, En Buen Siman!, 192.

55. Jalfón de Bentolila, Haketía: A Memoir, 6.

56. Jimmy Pimienta’s audio collection (hereafter PAC) includes more than 133 interviews, events, and radio shows recorded between 1986 and 1994 in multiple locations, including but not limited to Morocco, France, Canada, Venezuela, Spain, Israel, Portugal, and Switzerland. The collection is titled Recueil audio: Témoignages, Entretiens et Documents Enregistrés sur le Terrain pour Diffusion dans le Programme Aadas y Adafinas de la Radio Juive de Paris, Radio Communauté (RCJ). Collections Famille Pimienta: Jimmy Pimienta, Les Judéo-Espagnols Du Maroc.

1. HISPANIC JEWS IN MOROCCO

1. Onieva, Guía Turística, 210.

2. One of the pioneering works in English that delved into this aspect is Cohen, “On Belonging and Other Dreams.”

3. See Sandoica, Pensamiento Burgués, 569; Miège, Le Maroc et l’Europe, 120–123. The distinction between ethnoreligious groups in official statistics is based on a colonial, sociolegal stratifications. Europeans were by and large Christians; yet this category may encompass several Jewish European nationals who were not registered as locals.

4. Jean Claude, “Les Europeens,” 3.

5. López García, “Españoles de Marruecos,” 17–48.

6. Gilson Miller, Years of Glory, 34.

7. For instance, the economic activity in Tangier’s port dramatically increased from 8,905 tons of goods in 1945 to 175,225 tons in 1950 and 242,595 tons in 1952. The establishment of the General Employment Bureau around 1955 reflected the growing appeal of Tangier as an economic haven among lower-income migrants from Europe. Alamin Albazzaz, “Tangier,” 21–22.

8. Adila, “Datos Para la Historia,” 144.

9. Kutz, “State and Territorial Restructuring,” 21.

10. La Porte, “Colonial Dreams,” 821–844.

11. López García, “Españoles en el Marruecos Actual,” 38–39.

12. Malo de Molina and Domínguez, Tetuán: El Ensanche.

13. Ojeda Mata, “Jewish Tetouan,” 367.

14. Marglin, “Modernizing Moroccan Jews,” 593, 601 n. 145; Laskier, The Alliance Israelite, 171–75.

15. González González, Spanish Education, 52–62; 76–77, 88-99; 168–72; González González, “Escuelas,” 119–21, 128–30; Halstead, “A ‘Somewhat Machiavellian’ Face,” 50. While “Jewish” is widely employed in this study as a socioreligious category, in historical Spanish sources, the use of Jewish often implies antisemitic sentiments, which is why the preference for “Hebrew” emerged in the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco as a replacement. Interestingly, many Jews in North Morocco also referred to themselves as Hebrews, influenced by the negative connotations associated with the term Jewish during the Spanish Protectorate. “Israelite,” less commonly used in Spanish, is also widely used by local Jews and it is a result of French influence. (See, Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, xv.)

16. See figures in Laskier, The Alliance Israelite, 311.

17. Cazes Bénatar, “Tangier,” 453; Cazes Bénatar, “Spanish Morocco,” 394–95.

18. González González, “Spanish Education,” 158; Laskier, The Alliance Israelite, 310.

19. Moreno, “De-Westernizing,” 73.

20. A list of schools, youth monuments, and communal institutions in North Africa, CZA, File s5-12.177.

21. Bendelac, Mosaics, 15–16, 42–43.

22. Quoted in Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 8.

23. Bendelac, Los Nuestros, 133–36.

24. Sayahi, “Aqui Todo el Mundo,” 42.

25. The Hispano-Franceca library in Tangier offered new books in French, Spanish, and English and published its services at the Boletín Oficial. See Boletín Oficial 1, October 1949, 12.

26. Sayahi, “Aqui Todo el Mundo,” 41.

27. Y. Cohen, Tangiers, 1903, Archives of the AIU, Tunisia 1.D.1, [quoted in Rodrigue, Jews and Muslims, 127–128.]

28. Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, 59–60.

29. For example, Isaac Toledano and Isaac Laredo from Tangier (together with Augustín Lugaro from Gibraltar) edited El Eco Mauritano (1886–1930); Yosef Hassán (from Tetouan) edited El Magrebí (1934); Samuel Cohen, who spent most of his life in Tangier, edited España de Tánger and was president of the International Press Association in Tangier. Cohen also edited a supplement to España called España Semanal—in which he adopted the pen name of Claudio Laredo—and authored the Spanish-language novels La Puerta Secreta (Sevilla, 1953) and Vacaciones en Europa (Madrid, 1959). Al-Bazzaz, “Tangier During,” 22; Crespo, Les Espagnols au Maroc, 90.

30. Rojas Marcos, “Literatura Española en Tánger,” 80–83; Israel Garzón, Los Judíos Hispano-Marroquíes, 119.

31. Bürki, “Haketia in Morocco,” 143.

32. Moisés Garzón Serfaty, interviewed by Leonardo Senkman, 1990 Venezuela, ICJ (213) 12.

33. See, for example, Garzón Serfaty, “Premio Gordo Numero,” 14, 19.

34. “Gerardo Diego Triunfo en el Circulo a de Tetuán,” 2.

35. “Juanito Valderrama,” in The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, ed. Colin Larkin (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195313734.001.0001/acref-9780195313734-e-74951.

36. For more information about these performances see Bendayan, Une Jeunesse à Tanger, 64–67.

37. For this testimony and additional observations on the reception of tango in the Jewish communities in northern Morocco, see “Tango Morocco,” 2011, film by Martha Wolff, The Oster Visual Documentation Center, ANU—Museum of the Jewish People, courtesy of Martha Wolff.

38. Alberto Pimienta, “La Zarzuela y Los Judíos en el Teatro Cervantes de Tánger,” interviewed by Jimmy and Gladys Pimienta, Tangier, PAC, call no. 106-CL.TG18.

39. Sr. Ahmed Goudian, “Un Musulmán Se Acuerda de los Antiguos Judíos Tangerinos,” interviewed by Jimmy Pimienta, Tangier, PAC, call no. 13-LU.TG07.

40. Aidi, “Tangier’s Jazzmen.” Radio broadcasting across colonial North Africa, including in northern Morocco, was particularly multilingual. Christopher Silver notes, for example, that the Francoist Radio Sevilla started broadcasting in Arabic while searching for target audiences in North Africa, and that Italian radio broadcasting was particularly popular in the region before 1940. For more on the influence of radio broadcasting on the soundscape of North Africa in the late 1930s, see Silver, Jews, Muslims and Music, 106–107.

41. Adila, “Datos Para la Historia,” 145–146.

42. Berdugo, “La Juventud Judía de Tánger y los Deportes,” 6.

43. Such as La Santa Barbara (the Spanish military team), Radio Militar, F.T.F.D., the Prince of Asturias, the Lukus, the Liksus, and the Teja De Riali team. See also Beneish, “Los Macabeos.”

44. Jacob Levy, “La Juventud Judía y los Deportes,” 2.

45. “Larache en Fiesta,” 2.

46. Based on information from the exhibition “Tetuán A Rayas, The Madroño (Bear) Became a Palm,” featuring the history of the group held at the Cervates Institute in Tel Aviv, and later at the North Africa Jews Heritage Center on June 21. I am grateful to the late Nina Pinto Abecasis for kindly sharing this information with me and allowing me to use it for my research. Read more about the exhibition at “Un Atlético de Exposición,” Marca Atlético, accessed June 20, 2020, https://www.marca.com/2015/10/15/futbol/equipos/atletico/1444894902.html.

47. “Samuel Serfaty,” 15.

48. An interview with David (pseudonym), 2009, Israel; an interview with Nina (pseudonym), 2009, Israel; an interview with Perla (pseudonym), 2009, Israel; an interview with Benarroch Aquiba, 1990, ICJ (213)12.

49. See, for example, the list of names published in “Boletín de OSE, 1949–1950” (AR Geneva: Tangiers-OSE Bulletins, 1946–54) JDCA, Call No. 179.

50. The circumcision notebook of Rabbi Bar Vidal Haserfaty, composed between 1881 and 1940 in Tetuan, very frequently reflected typical biblical Hebrew names. Yishaq (301 out of 2,725), Abraham (277), and Moshe (231) were seen most frequently and were also the most common names among fathers (See López Álvarez, La Comunidad Judía de Tetuán, 314). A similar impression was given by Tangier’s main circumcision notebooks (R. Habib Toledano, “Registo de Circunciones”; R. Samuel Benatar, “Registo de Circuncisiones”; R. Yamín Hacohen, “Cauderno de Circuncisiones”; R. Yehuda Ha-Cohen, “Cauderno de Circuncisiones,” PPC).

51. The text from here to the end of the chapter is derived in part from Moreno, “Remapping ‘Tradition,’” 378–400, https://doi.org/10.1080/1462169X.2021.1993542.

52. “Nuestras Doctrinas,” 6; “Una Feliz Inciativa,” 7.

53. Adila, “Datos Para la Historia,” 143–44.

54. Simi (pseudonym), interviewed by Aviad Moreno, 2009, Israel.

55. Cohen, Recordar, Resistir, 461–62.

56. Bendelac, Mosaics, 43.

57. Songs in Judeo-Spanish, Tangier, 1987, SA-JUNL, Call No. Y-05669-f.

58. Pinto Abecasis, “The Piropo,” 75–100.

59. Salomón (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel. For additional indications see Cohen, “Recordar, Resistir,” 163, 520–29.

60. Apparently, it is not a misprint since the practice repeated itself in other issues; see Or-Luz, May 15, 1956, 1; May 31, 1956, 16; June 15, 1956, 21.

61. An interview with Hélène (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel; Pinto Abecasis, The Peacock, 229–41.

62. An interview with Hélène (pseudonym), 2009, Israel; an interview with Ruth (pseudonym), 2009, Israel. For the way weddings became emblematic of ethnic formation among Hispanic Moroccan Jews, see Pinto Abecasis, “Transformations in the Noche de Paños,” 139–62; Pinto Abecasis, The Peacock, 4–8.

63. Onieva, Guía Turística, 320–22, 331.

64. In Tangier, therefore, a Mellah (Jewish quarter perceived by scholars as a local ghetto, designed to force the isolation of Jews by royal decree) in fact had never been created. Yet the concentration of Jewish facilities, as well as many Jewish domiciles and businesses in this area, left the impression of a segregated Mellah. See Kutz, “State and Territorial Restructuring,” 22; Gilson Miller, “Apportioning Sacred Space,” 57–60.

65. Adila, “Datos Para la Historia,” 143–45.

66. Sánchez, “The Sephardi Berberisca,” 37–38. Venessa Paloma Elbaz has recently identified transitional spaces like the Noche de Berberisca ceremony and musically oriented communal celebrations led by women (who supply essential information to the community as a whole) as “semi-public” spaces (Elbaz, “Jewish Music,” 22.)

67. The endogamy in local Jewish society may explain why marriages were referred to, in many of my interviews, as symbolic ethnic traditions. An interview with Hélène (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel; an interview with Ruth (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel; an interview with David (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel.

2. IN (RE)SEARCH OF ORIGINS

1. Silverman et al., Romances Judeo-Españoles, 7–8.

2. Armistad, “Judeo-Spanish Traditional,” 335.

3. An annotated version of her work was eventually published in 1977. Silverman et al., Romances Judeo-Españoles, 8.

4. Axel, “The Context of Diaspora,” 32; for Brubaker’s problematization of clustering groups as diasporic entities without checking if members of those groups identify as such, see Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 11.

5. Chatty, Displacement and Dispossession, 34.

6. Moreno and Gerber, “Studying Jews from Muslims Countries in Israel,” 7–39.

7. Shiloah, Jewish Musical Traditions, 48–53.

8. Ortega, Los Hebreos en Marruecos, 160.

9. Jouin, “Le Costume de la Femme Israélite,” 167–86; See also Seroussi, Sonic Ruins, 82.

10. Pulido, Españoles sin Patria, 10, 61–62, 76, 159, 256.

11. Pulido, Los Israelitas, 180–90.

12. Danon, The Jews of Ottoman Izmir, 115; see also Danon, “Recueil de Romances Judeo-Espagnoles,” 102–23, 263–75.

13. Meyuhas Ginio, Between Sepharad and Jerusalem, 286.

14. Guershon, “The Foundation of Hispano-Jewish Associations,” 181–82, 186 ; Cohen, Recordar, Resisitir, 266.

15. Evri, The Return to Al-Andalus, 119–26; Gonzalez, “Abraham S. Yahuda,” 406–33; Friedman, “Orientalism between Empires,” 435–51.

16. “Spain,”10.

17. Ortega, Los Hebreos, 300. The short-lived Kol Israel, which appeared in Tangier in 1914, dedicated the front page of its fourteenth issue to the election held at the Spanish Chamber of Commerce for a new board of directors for the local Hispano-Hebrew Association. The reporter viewed the participation of a large number of members in the middle of a workday (Monday) as proof of that body’s influence over Tangier’s Jews. See “Elecciones de la Asociacion Hispano-Hebrea,” 1.

18. Benoliel, “Dialecto Judeo-Hispano-Marroquí,” 228–29.

19. Pimienta, Un Aljófar y una Perla, 25.

20. Benoliel, “Dialecto Judeo-Hispano-Marroquí (1926),” 209–33, 342–63, 507–38; 14 (1927), 137–68, 196–234, 357–73, 566–80; 15 (1928), 47–61, 188–223. See also Serels, A History, 267.

21. Elbaz, “Looking at the ‘Other,’” 410–411, 416.

22. Hamilton, “Hispanism and Sephardic Studies,” 182.

23. Silverman et al., Romances Judeo-Españoles, 7–8

24. See Veidlinger, ed., Going to the People, 7–8, 10.

25. Cited in Silverman et al., Romances Judeo-Españoles, 8.

26. Noy, Experts or Witnesses.

27. Seroussi, “Archivists of Memory,” 199.

28. Bürki, “Haketia in Morocco,” 121–55.

29. Serels, A History, 145–46; Ojeda Mata, “Jewish Tetouan,” 371.

30. In the 1930s, the title was Romanized, and the subtitle Revista Hispano-Sefarad (Hispanic-Sepharad Review) was added.

31. Schroeter, “Renacimiento de Israel (Tangier).”

32. “El Viaje a España,” 5.

33. Schroeter, “The Shifting Boundaries,” 150.

34. “Indice de Revistas Ibéricas Sefaradíes,” 5; see also “La Primera Etapa,”1-3. Among the articles in the newspaper’s special first anniversary issue were “La Vuelta a España” (“Return to Spain”), by Vicente Alvarez Buylla, and “Renacimiento de los Estudios Hispánicos en el Extranjero” (“The Revival of Hispanic Studies Abroad”) by Alberto Cazés. Later issues ran articles titled “La España Que Fué” (“Spain, Once Upon a Time”) and “Los Judíos Españoles Conservan Patrióticamente un Tesoro de la Raza” (“The Spanish Jews Patriotically Preserve a Treasure of The [Hispanic] Race”), among many others marking historic connections between the Jews of northern Morocco and pre-1492 Spain.

35. “L’edition de Notre Journal,” 3.

36. “Juicios y Opinions,” 3.

37. See, for example, Ich Yehudi, “Tolerancia No Es Ni Crea Derecho,” 1-2; “Los Judíos de Lengua Española,” 4.

38. Heckman, The Sultan’s Communists, 50–51. Silver, Jews, Muslims and Music, 90.

39. Albet Mas, “Three Gods, Two Shores,” 585, 595; 592, 598; Calderwood, Colonial Al-Andalus, 5–7, 170.

40. Rohr, “The Use of Antisemitism,” 206–207.

41. Ojeda Mata, “Jewish Tetouan,” 366–67; Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 349.

42. Laredo, Bereberes y Hebreos en Marruecos; see also Laredo, “Lápidas Sepulcrales,” 421–32; Vallicrosa, “Lápidas Sepulcrales,” 63–72.

43. For more biographical details, see “Currículum Vitae de Salomon Bensabat Rédigé en 1962,” stored at the Raphaël Benazeraf Collection, at the Yad Ben Zvi Institute, Jerusalem; for an online version, see https://www.judaisme-marocain.org/objets_popup.php?id=14150; see also Bensabat, “Hasdai Ben Chaprut,” 115–23.

44. Cited in Gilson Miller, Years of Glory, 35.

45. “Tangier Budget for the First Half of 1955” (Morocco: budget-finance, 1947–1954), JDCA, Call No. C.56–706, 10.

46. Calderwood, “Moroccan Jews and the Spanish Colonial Imaginary,” 1, 9, 13.

47. Coriat, “Mi Comunidad: Breve Reseña Histórica.”

48. Silver, Jews, Muslims and Music, 143.

49. Benmaman, “El Símbolo del Sefaradísmo,” 8–9.

50. “Los Cheutas y su Actual Situación,” 3, 21; Wahnon, “Maimónides Profeta de la Medicina Contemporánea,” 7–9; Santos de Carrion, “Imágenes de Sefarad,” 9, 14.

51. Medina, “Añoranzas de un Sabbat,” 12.

52. Ibid.; an earlier publication by that author appeared under the title Latidos de Andalucía in 1954.

53. Mogar, “Alegrías de Cádiz,” 9, 20.

54. Silverman et al., Romances Judeo-Españoles, 17–22. See also Palacín, Romances de Tetuán; Palacín, Cuentos Populares; Bénichou, “Notas Sobre el Judeo-Español,” 307–12.

55. “Alberto Pimienta, Su Acción de Recoger Cantos Judeoespañoles de Marruecos,” interviewed by Jimmy Pimienta, Tangier, 1993, PAC, call no. 119-CL.MX13.

56. Axel, “The Context,” 32.

3. MOROCCO IN LATIN AMERICA, LATIN AMERICA IN MOROCCO

1. Monaco, Moses Levy of Florida. About England, see, for example, Halliday, “The Millet of Manchester,” 161; about the United States of America, see Leibovici, “La Emigración a América de los Sefardíes,” 242; about Bukhara and Palestine, see Leibovici, “De Tetuán a Bujara,” 55–56; concerning Egypt, see Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 212; about the Brazilian Amazon, see Benchimol, Eretz Amazonia, 79–104.

2. For instance, between 1908 and 1941, almost 65 percent of the Lebanese and Syrians entering Brazil through the port of Sao Paulo professed to be Catholics (Lesser, “From Pedlars,” 396–97). See also Zenner, “Streams of Immigration,” 146; Issawi, “The Historical Background of Lebanese Emigration,” 30–31.

3. Mirelman, “Sephardic Immigration to Argentina,” 13; Laskier, The Alliance Israélite, 311–12.

4. See Moreno, “Expanding the Dimensions,” 5–6.

5. Schroeter, “Trade as a Mediator,” 113–14; Lourido Díaz, “Los Judíos en Marruecos,” 27–28.

6. Schroeter, “The Shifting Boundaries,” 145–64.

7. Serels, Jews of Cape Verde, 53–55.

8. Haller, “Place and Ethnicity,” 78; Miège, “L’activité Maritime a Tanger,” 55–76. Copies of Maguid Micharim are digitized and available at https://www.nli.org.il/en/newspapers/tas.

9. Abu-Haidar, “La Coexistance Linguistique,” 39.

10. Gilson Miller, “Kippur on the Amazon,” 109; Bengio and Miège, “La Communauté Juive de Tanger,” 152–54, 157.

11. Bennoune, “Maghribi Workers in France,” 2.

12. Out of eleven million immigrants entering Latin America from 1851 to 1924, some 46 percent resettled in Argentina and 33 percent in Brazil (see Bejarano, “The Sephardic Communities,” 26–29).

13. Liberman, “Moroccan Jews,” 106.

14. In 1823, the first documented Jewish Moroccan name appeared in the license of commerce list issued by the Brazilian state of Para. In the ensuing years, several typical Jewish Moroccan names were documented. See Liberman, “Moroccan Jews,” 107; Benchimol, Eretz Amazonia, 79–107; Blay, “Judeus na Amazônia,” 43.

15. Segal, Jews of the Amazon, 51–52.

16. Mirelman, “Sephardic Immigration,” 22.

17. Moya, “The Jewish Experience,” 8–11.

18. Ibid., 16; Epstein, “Los Judeo-Marroquíes,” 121; Bengio, “Juifs Marocains,” 233–49.

19. Aizenberg, “Venezuela y los Judíos Curazoleños,” 14.

20. Vilar, “La Emigración Judeo-Marroquí,” 39–44.

21. Bejarano, “The Sephardic Communities,” 25; Carciente, Presencia Sefardí, 158–60; Benoliel, “Présence Judéo-Marocaine,” 220.

22. Carciente, La Comunidad Judía de Venezuela, 126; Vilar, “La Emigración Judeo-Marroquí,” 47–49.

23. Moreno, Europe from Morocco.

24. Abensur, “Les Eleves,” 6–10.

25. Laskier, The Alliance Israelite, 304–05.

26. Gilson Miller, “Kippur on the Amazon,” 197.

27. Cited in Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands, 205.

28. Vilar, “La Emigración,” 12–13.

29. Blank, “The Integration,” 213.

30. Bejarano, “The Sephardic Communities,” 25; Gilson Miller, “Kippur on the Amazon,” 204; Mirelman, “Sepharadim in Latin America,” 242; Vilar, “La Emigración,” 46; Mirelman, “Sephardic Immigration,” 23.

31. López García, “Españoles de Marruecos,” 20.

32. Epstein, “Instituciones y Liderazgo,” 137.

33. Brodsky, Sephardi, Jewish, Argentine, 17–19, 22, 28, 61; Cohen, “Recordar,” 412.

34. Levy Benshimol and Goldberg, Diccionario de Cultura, 118, 128; Goldberg and Hubschman, “Las Instituciones,” 3.

35. Mirelman, “Sephardic Immigration,” 17–21.

36. The JCA purchased land mostly in Argentina and Brazil, where Jews, mainly from Eastern Europe, were resettled for agricultural work (see Levin, “Labor and Land,” 341–59; Falbel, “Jewish Agricultural,” 325–40).

37. Epstein, “Los Judeo-Marroquíes,” 114.

38. Gilson Miller, “Kippur on the Amazon,” 199.

39. Serels, A History, 72.

40. Benchimol, “La Langue Espagnole,” 128.

41. Quoted and translated in Segal, Jews of the Amazon, 52.

42. “Gran Bazar La Caraqueña,” 22. See also Vilar, “La Emigración,” 45; Bendelac, Los Muestros, 44.

43. Balán, “The Role of Migration Policies,” 117.

44. About Venezuela’s policy, see Las Migraciones Laborales, 11. A census taken in the city of Buenos Aires in 1936 indicated that by that year, out of the Jewish Moroccan community of a few thousand, only 420 had been born in Morocco; the majority were descendants of Moroccans. Furthermore, only five percent of Moroccan natives in 1936 were under the age of fifteen, meaning that most had probably arrived in earlier years (see Mirelman, “Sephardic Immigration,” 21).

45. My own recapitulation, based on data provided by Álvarez, La Comunidad Judía.

46. Israel Garzón, “Destinos de Emigración,” 114.

47. Vagni, “El Colonialismo Español.”

48. “Delegados de Hajnasat Orhim,” 11.

49. A total of 2490.20 Spanish pesetas (Ptas Esp.) and 30 pesetas Hassani (Ptas Hni) were collected abroad overall, compared to 3074.50 Ptas Hni and 170 Ptas Esp. (together totaling 2905.86 Spanish pesetas) collected in Tangier (see “Estado Financiero,” 12–13; compare “Adherentes de Tánger,” 16, with “Adherentes del Extranjero,” 19–30).

50. Total contributions between 5673 (1913) and 5680 (1920) amounted to 28,083.57 Ptas Hni and 5232.50 Ptas Esp., out of which only 20,051.25 Ptas Hni and 482.50 Ptas Esp. were donated by local adherents (compare “Adherentes de Tánger,” 10, 23 with “Adherentes del Extranjero,” 13–16, 26–32).

51. Levy, “Informe del Secretario Contador,” 2–3.

52. “Donativos Varios,” 31; 14,565.64 Ptas Hni and 6879.70 Ptas Esp., out of which only 411.75 Ptas Hni and 508.15 Ptas Esp. were donated in Tangier. An additional list of “various donations” indicated another substantial amount of 9,773.89 Ptas Hni and 4,421.95 Ptas Esp., donated mainly by Moroccan émigrés, notably from Latin America.

53. A total of 3011.50 francs, with a value equivalent to 2,281.43 Ptas Esp. Each franc was converted into 1.32 Ptas Esp. (“Fondo Especial,” 9, 32).

54. Brodsky, Sephardi, Jewish, Argentine, 85.

55. “La Proclamación de la Independencia del Perú,” 3.

56. “Nuestro Compatriotas,” 22.

57. “En Tetuán,” 2.

58. “Un Libro de Samuel,” 1.

59. “Notas de Tetuán,” 12.

60. Pulido, Españoles sin Patria, 141, 161.

61. Ortega, Los Hebreos, 203, 275; the letter mentioned appears on page 349.

62. Ricard, “L’émigration [1932],” 259; Ricard, “L’émigration [1928],” 201–02; Ricard, “L’émigration [1932],” 427–29.

63. Ricard, Diccionario Filosófico.

64. Ricard “L’emigration [1932],” 427–29.

65. Benumeya, “El Futuro Problema,” 2.

66. “El Discubrimiento de America,” 5.

67. La Vida de Moyses y Abraham Pinto en el Bosque Amazon, “Memorias,” accessed May 22, 2011, http://www.juifs-marocains-en-amazonie.com/

68. Benarroch Pinto, Indianos Tetuaníes, 9.

69. Ibid., 90.

70. Arques, “Indianos de Tetuán,” 2–4; Arques, “Indianos de Tetuán” (December 17, 1949), 3–6; Arques, “Indianos de Tetuán” (December 24, 1949), 5–6; Arques, “Indianos de Tetuán” (December 31, 1949), 2–4.

71. “Or Hailadim,” 3.

72. Cazes Bénatar, “Spanish Morocco.”

73. Mogar, “Tetuán Conserva,” 6.

74. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 218; Vilar, “La Emigración,” 46; Carciente, La Comunidad, 128; Blank, “The Integration,” 213; an interview with Gonzalo Benaím-Pinto, 1989, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Carlos Ben-Dahan, 1990, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Isaac Bendayán, 1990 (?), Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Lea Almosny Mercedes, 1990, Venezuela, ICJ.

75. Levy Benshimol and Goldberg, Diccionario, 407–10; Blank, “The Integration,” 213–14.

76. Bendelac, Mosaics, 13.

77. Alegría Bendelac’s extensive fieldwork in northern Morocco during the mid-1980s evoked similar memories (Bendelac, Los muestros, 46–47).

78. An interview with Perla (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel.

79. An interview with Daniel (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2010, Israel.

4. ZIONISM AND THE HISPANIC MOROCCAN DIASPORA

1. From 1949 onward, Noar was issued biweekly. Under the new editorship of Meyer Toledano, it aspired both to increase its circulation from two thousand to four thousand and to become the central journal for all Moroccan Jewry. From 1950 to 1952, despite its pro-Zionist orientation, the paper exposed Jews to political issues on the Moroccan national scene, such as the efforts to remove the Sultan (Tsur, A Torn Community, 97–98.)

2. Tapiero, “Folklore,” 3; another person who responded to the call was Sara Leibovici, who brought to the awareness of Noar’s readers the recent publication of the anthology Los ‘Proverbios’ de Sefaradítas Españoles by Hispanist and philologist Mosco Galimir (Leibovici, “Refranes Judeo-Españoles,” 3.)

3. Benarroch, “Necesidad de una Investigación,” 2.

4. Ibid.

5. Tsur, A Torn Community, 97–98.

6. Gilson Miller, A History, 112; Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 170, 176.

7. “Nos Echos- El Mundo Sefaradí,” 3. About the size of the community, see Tsur, A Torn Community, 421.

8. “El Mundo Sefaradí,” 2; see also Serels, A History, 294.

9. See also Meyuhas Ginio, Between Sepharad and Jerusalem, 225.

10. Weisz, Jews and Muslims, 40–41.

11. See Dubnov, “Zionism on the Diasporic Front,” 211–212; Evri, The Return to Al-Andalus, 27; Boum, “From ‘Little Jerusalem,’” 56.

12. Brodsky, Sephardi, Jewish, Argentine, 115–17. For a fresh network approach to the study of Hebrew culture and Zionism among Moroccan Jews in the first half of the twentieth century, see Guedj, The Hebrew Culture.

13. Rein and Lewis, “Complementary Identities,” 99–116.

14. “Tomo 1”; see also Sieskel, “‘El Jala,’” 84; Rein and Lewis, “Complementary Identities,” 26.

15. Gherman, “The Beginnings of Brazilian Zionism,” 164, 171, 173.

16. Ojeda Mata, “Jewish Tetouan,” 363–64; Boum, “From ‘Little Jerusalem.’”

17. Botbol Hatchuel, “La Comunidad Judía”; Yehuda, “Zionist Activity”; Cohen, “Spanish-Speaking.”

18. Among a wider series of correspondence he held between March 1916 and January 1947 (Bentolila, “The Archive,” 1–14.)

19. Ortega, Los Hebreos, 267.

20. Pulido, Españoles sin Patria, 184.

21. Schroeter, “From Sephardi to Oriental,” 125–48; for how early Zionist orientalism incorporated Sephardi supremacy into its repertoire, see Saposnik, “Europe and its Orients,” 1105–23.

22. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 21.

23. “Le Dr Bension,” 3; “The National Movement in Spain and Morocco,” 1–2.

24. Bejarano, “The Position of,” 41–42.

25. “Índice de Revistas,” 5.

26. “Jucios y Opinions,” 3.

27. Ojeda Mata, “Jewish Tetouan,” 365.

28. “Jornaes,” 22.

29. Haim, Particularity and Integration, 183.

30. Brodsky, Sephardi, Jewish, Argentine, 115–22, 124, 643–44.

31. “El Apostolado de Nuestro Ilustre”; see also Meyuhas Ginio, Between Sepharad and Jerusalem, 254–55.

32. “El Dr. Pulido en el Libro,” 5–6.

33. Cohen, “Spanish-Speaking,” 262–63.

34. Pinto, “Recuerdos de Tangerinos en Casablanca, 1898–1940” (December 3, 1965), PPC. Also supported by the Minutes of the Junta of Tangier (see Serels, A History, 73, footnote 67).

35. Tsur, A Torn Community, 46–47, 171.

36. Laskier, “S. D. Lévy and Moïse Nahón,” 51–86; Epstein, “Los Judeo-Marroquíes,” 114; Levin, “From Tunisia to Argentina,” 39–62.

37. For more on his activity and relationship with local and world Zionist leaders, see Gilson Miller, Years of Glory, 45.

38. Cohen, “Zionist Leaders,” 265–66; Boum, “From ‘Little Jerusalem,’” 58. For more on the development of Zionism in Morocco in the first half of the twentieth century, see Guedj, The Hebrew Culture, 47–51.

39. Gilson Miller, Years of Glory, 137.

40. Laskier, North African Jewry, 225.

41. Picard, Cut to Measure, 87–110.

42. Laskier, North African Jewry, 107.

43. Bin-Nun, “La Négociation,” 303.

44. Aharoni, The Aliyah, 1961–1964, 2; Aharoni, The Aliyah, 1961–1972, 9.

45. Tsur, A Torn Community, 59–60, 197; Serels, A History, 157–59.

46. “Tangier Budget for the First Half of 1955” (Morocco: budget-finance, 1947–1954), JDCA, Call No. C56.301, 2.

47. Ibid.

48. Cohen, “The Jewish Scouts,” 77, 91.

49. Laskier, Israel and Jewish Immigration, 257; Yossi Bentolila, “The Immgration,” 82–83.

50. A list of schools, youth monuments, and communal institutions in North Africa, CZA, File s5-12.177.

51. See list of donations in Boletín de Ose, 1949–1950 (AR Geneva: Tangiers-OSE Bulletins, 1946–54 JDCA, Call no. 179).

52. A letter from Blumenthal to the Department of Education and Culture in Exile, June 24, 1955 (CZA, File s5-12.177); “Inauguración de Exposición de Libros Hebreos en el Casino a de Tánger,” España, June 20, 1955 (found at the CZA, File s5-12.177).

53. Serels, A History, 163–64.

54. Aharoni, The Aliyah, 1961–1964, 2, 7, 9.

55. This section of chapter 4 (pp.82–85) is derived in part from an article published in Journal of North African Studies, June 30, 2022, copyright Taylor & Francis, available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/13629387.2022.2088522; for an extended discussion, see Moreno, “Expanding the Dimensions,” 15–17.

56. Las Migraciones Laborales, 19–21.

57. Gilson Miller, Years of Glory, 61–62.

58. Report by Raphael Spanien concerning his visit to Morocco, March 1955. HIAS at Yivo, United HIAS Service Main Office, NY. Call no. RG 245.8, I-363, box 612. I thank Michal Ben-Ya’akov for drawing my attention to this document.

59. Tsur, A Torn Community, 190–96.

60. Serels, A History, 289.

61. See, for example, Birth certificate signed by Carlos Albo in Tangier, “Acta de Nacimiento, Estados Unidos de Venezuela-Consulado ad-Honorem de Venezuela Tánger,” Tangier, July 11, 1952, MPC.

62. Ben-Ya’akov, “Cazès-Benathar”; Tsur, A Torn Community, 291. For more on her family and background as a member of the Hispanic Moroccan Jewish community, see Gilson Miller, Years of Glory, 9–23.

63. Report by Raphael Spanien, March 1955.

64. Ibid.

65. Laskier, North African Jewry, 186.

66. Heckman, The Sultan’s Communists, 106–07, 117, 134–35.

67. Bin-Nun, “The Contribution of,” 254; Bin-Nun, “The Movement,” 236, 249; Serels, A History, 278–79; El Guabli, “Morocco Reimagined,” 51–52.

68. Heckman, The Sultan’s Communists, 136; Calderwood, Colonial Al-Andalus, 9.

69. Serels, “Nesry, Carlos De.”

70. El Guabli, “Morocco Reimagined,” 47.

71. Ojeda Mata, “The Sephardim,” 9.

72. Heckman, The Sultan’s Communists, 149–63.

73. Bin-Nun, “Moroccan Press Debate,” 87–90.

74. Bin-Nun, “The Contribution,” 263; “Telegrama Rabat-New York,” 1.

75. Pouso Balleto, “S. M. Mohamed V en Tetuán,” 4–5.

76. Ibid., 6.

77. Pouso Balleto, “El Príncipe Muley Hassan,” 7; “Social: De la Llegada de,” 9.

78. Benmaman, “Un Hombre Conocido,” 7–8.

79. Bensabat, “Conozcamos Nuestro Pasado,” 2, 10; see also Calderwood, “Moroccan Jews,” 13–19.

80. Bin-Nun, “The Movement for,” 235–84. See particularly page 257, note 58.

81. No title, Or-Luz, February 15, 1956, 4–6.

82. Kristol, “Einstein: Pasión de la Razón Pura,” 4, 18–19.

83. See, for example, Blanc, “El Desarrollo del Idioma Hebreo,” 5, 20; Borestein, “Noche de Pesca,” 10–11.

84. “Cover page,” Or-Luz, February 15, 1956.

85. Medina, “Bahia de Elath,” 10; “Noche de Pesca,” 11; Brender, “El Famoso,” 10.

86. No title, cover page, Or-Luz, April 18, 1956; no title, cover page, May 31, 1956.

87. Benazeraf, “Episodes,” 19, 25. Other advocates, like Alfonso Sabah, did emigrate to Israel, where they became community leaders and, as we shall see in chapter 7, sought to promote Hispanic Moroccan identity.

5. MOROCCANS IN VENEZUELA: A NEW GLOBAL HIERARCHY

1. DellaPergolla, “‘Sephardic and Oriental,’” 12–14.

2. Schmelz, Della Pergola, and Avner, Ethnic Differences among Israeli Jews, 15.

3. Teller, Rescue the Surviving Souls.

4. Chazan, “Aliya From ‘Affluent Countries,’” 405, 420; Livneh, “Does Zionism Have a Future?” 33; Herzog, “Symbolism and Policy,” 49–64.

5. Troper, “The Canadian Jewish Polity,” 237.

6. Peretz, Let My People Go, 2–4.

7. Troper, “The Canadian Jewish Polity,” 245, 248–49.

8. Serels, A History, 180; Benoliel, “Présence Judéo-Marocaine,” 227.

9. Della Pergola, “Jewish Out-Marriage,” 156–57, 162–64.

10. De Haas, Catles, and Miller, The Age of Migration, 217.

11. Monk and Isaacson, Comunidades Judías, 95. Della Pergola, “Jewish Out-Marriage,” 155. Concerning Venezuela’s policies, see, for example, Padrón, “Whiteness in Latina Immigrants,” 194–206.

12. Federbush, World Jewry Today, 462.

13. Wieland, “On a Remote Jewish Collective”; Even-Sapir, “Venezuela—a Land of Oil and Prosperity”; “Venezuela—the Sephardic Population” (found in the CZA, File S5-11.620).

14. Levy Benshimol and Goldberg, Diccionario de Cultura, 227–29.

15. An interview with Simi (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel; an interview with Moisés Garzón Serfaty, 1990, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Carlos Gueron, 1991, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Perla Sultan, 1989, Venezuela, ICJ.

16. Federbush, World Jewry Today, 462.

17. El Khuffash Alvarez, “Venezuela, La Partición Del Mandato Británico,” 29–37; Sananes Almoslinos and García Eugenio, El Discurso, 82–84; Belilty, “Nety Bargraser,” 9–12; see also “Hace 26 años,” 8.

18. Lejter, Jewish Discourses, 172, 273, 282–84.

19. Blank, “The Integration,” 217; Monk and Isaacson, Comunidades Judías, 96–97.

20. A Dispatch from the Israeli Consul in Caracas to the Latin American Department in the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, January 26, 1961 (ISA, Call No. MFA, 3314 34.)

21. Ibid.

22. Kodesh, “A Great Lesson from a Small Mission,” 459–66; Duvshani, “The Jewish School in Caracas,” 3.

23. Blank, “The Integration,” 210, 218, 220.

24. A letter from the board of directors to the AIV, February 28, 1963 (CAHJP, Call No. Ven/117); an interview with Gonzalo, 1989, Venezuela, ICJ.

25. Goldberg and Hubschman, “Los Pilares Fundacionales,” 19–22.

26. Nassí, “La Comunidad Ashkeanzi,” 5, 44.

27. Blank, “The Integration,” 218; see also “Qué es CAIV,” Confederación de Asociaciones as de Venezuela (CAIV), accessed January 25, 2011, https://www.caiv.org/quienes-somos/.

28. “Nuevos Socios,” 1.

29. “La Asociacion Israelita de Venezuela Registra,” 24; “Cerca de Cien Niños Asisten,” 24.

30. “El Grupo Herzl,” 11.

31. “Hilula de Rebbi Meir Baal HaNes,” 18; “Hilula de Rebbi Shimon Bar Yohai,” 19.

32. “La Visita de Jo Amar,” 24.

33. Shalom Chetrit, Intra-Jewish Conflict, 43–140.

34. Such reports appeared frequently, mostly authored by David Sitton. See, for example, “BaMa’aracha’s Editor Is Due to Visit the Sephardic Communities,” 17.

35. “The Monthly News,” 22 (appearing in an issue that devoted its cover page to a local housing crisis); Sofer, “Intensifying Activities by the WSF,” 29, 31.

36. Sitton, Sephardi Communities Today, 176, 286.

37. See “Editor’s Note,” Hedim 1 (January 1974): 2.

38. Ronen, “The Founding Convention,” 6; “In Latin America,” 15; “Realizose con Éxito,” 27. Mati Ronen was the WZO Sephardic Department’s emissary to New York in 1973.

39. Garzón Serfaty, “FESELA a los 40 Años.”

40. Guberek, Crónica Testimonial, 235–36. See also https://www.fesela.com/revista-maguen.

41. Ibid.; an interview with Moisés Garzón Serfaty, 1990, Venezuela, ICJ.

42. “Editorial-Deja Salir a Mi Pueblo,” 3.

43. Benarroch, “Qué es y Qué,” 11.

44. “Semana de Judaísmo Latinoamericano,” 18.

45. See, for example, an interview with Daniel Bendahan, 1990, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Lea Almosny Mercedes, 1990, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Fortuna Bendayan de Furhman, 1989, Venezuela, ICJ; an interview with Mary Taurel, 1989, Venezuela, ICJ.

46. Aizenberg, “Judíos en la América,” 11; Salama “El Yishuv Judio en Brasil,” 8.

47. See, for example, Villar, “Primeros Emigrantes,” 4; Villar, “Fernando VII,” 10–13.

48. See, for example, “La Situación de los Judíos en los Países Árabes,” 19–22. This report ends with the call “Let my people go” and demanding freedom of emigration for Jews of Arab countries. The call for the “salvage” of Soviet Jews is repeated throughout 1971–72; “Editorial-Deja Salir a Mi Pueblo,” 3.

49. Botbol, “Conferencia Mundial de las Comunidades,” 8.

50. Shenhav, “World Organization of Jews from Arab Countries,” 31.

51. “Futuro Incierto Para el Judaísmo Marroquí,” 11–13.

52. An invitation by the Club a de Venezuela, February 23, 1966 (CAHJP, Call No. Ven/146).

53. A dispatch concerning the response of Jews from northern Morocco, May 14, 1969 (CAHJP, Call No. Ven/84); dispatches sent from Caracas to the Jewish communities of Tangier and Tetouan between February 18 and May 28, 1969 (CAHJP, Call No. Ven/84). The Moroccan community in Venezuela was not the only Moroccan community in the diaspora to adopt such a stance. The long-lasting Moroccan-led periodical Israel in Argentina featured many images of Moroccan Jews “in distress.” At the outset of the 1970s, many of these concerns were directed to the communities in Israel.

54. See front-page photographs featuring the work of the JDC in, as the texts below explain, its “combat” against the terrible misery of Jews in Islamic countries (Israel, January 18, 1950; February 17, 1950) or efforts improve the economic conditions of Jews in North Africa (Israel, June 16, 1950; July 21, 1950). As for the situation in Israel, see, for example, a reprint of Albert Memmi’s article expressing solidarity with Israel’s Black Panthers (Israel, September 1973, 9).

55. Toledano, “Recuerdos de Tánger,” Maguén-Escudo, September 1970, 17.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Toledano, “Recuerdos de Tánger,” March 1971, 12.

59. Toledano, “Recuerdos de Tánger,” December 1970, 29.

6. SPAIN AND THE POSTCOLONIAL DIASPORA

1. Narvoni, “The Jewish Communities in Spain,” 5–6. Samuel Serfaty was mentioned in chapter 1 as the trainer of Atlético Tetouan’s basketball team.

2. Avishai, “The Jews are Back in Madrid,” 8–9.

3. The author’s conversation with Rabbi Benito Garzón, September 8, 2020.

4. “The King of Spain Met,” 18.

5. “Sephardi Roots and Public Activity,” 8.

6. Duyvendak, The Politics of Home.

7. Vilar, Tetuán, 87–89.

8. Rohr, The Spanish Right, 12–14; Kerem, “Portugal’s Citizenship for Sephardic Jewry,” 6.

9. Gerber, The Jews of Spain, 264; Rein, “Diplomacy, Propaganda,” 21; Schammah Gesser and Pinheiro, “Guest Editors’ Introduction,” 1–15.

10. Rein, “Diplomacy, Propaganda,” 26–30.

11. Lisbona Martín, “La Especificidad,” 75; on the process of Spanish naturalization, see Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, 114–220.

12. See, for example, “Enlace,” 5, 17.

13. Ennaji, Moroccan Muslims, 39.

14. Lisbona Martín, “La Especificidad,” 74.

15. Bernecker and Cook, “The Change in Mentalities,” 67–68.

16. Gómez Escalonilla, “Educación Para,” 127–48; Gómez Escalonilla, “International Organizations,” 73.

17. For more on the revival of Sephardic studies in the 1970s and early 1980s, see a summary of works and programs in Jewish Folklore and Ethnology Newsletter 5 (1982): 4–5.

18. Gerber, “Ingathering the Sephardic Experience,” 32.

19. Rein, “Diplomacy, Propaganda,” 21–33.

20. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 71, 73, 75–78; Lisbona, Retorno, 225. See also “Historia de La Federación,” Federación de Comunidades Judías de España, accessed July 2020, http://www.fcje.org/historia.

21. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos de Tetuán, 121–22; Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 81.

22. “Raíces Nos Invita a Cruzar un Puente Entre Dos Mundos.” See also the editor’s letter to the readers published in 2011, on the occasion of Raíces’s twenty-fifth anniversary (Israel Garzón, “Carta de un Caminante: Raíces y la Sociedad Civil Judía.”)

23. Setton, Spanish-Israeli Relations, 78.

24. “Inauguration of First [Jewish] School in Spain,” 8.

25. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 75, 77.

26. “Spanish Award for Radio Broadcasting,” 18.

27. Lisbona, Retorno, 332; Setton, Spanish-Israeli Relations, 174–75.

28. He published the books Benami, The Origins of the Second Republic; Benami, Fascism from Above, and Spain between Dictatorship and Democracy.

29. Embajador de Israel en España-Shelomó Ben-Amí, “Patrimonio Judeoespañol, Marroquí de Habla Española-Interview for RCJ,” interviewed by Jimmy Pimienta, Madrid (PAC, call no. 609-PE.IL03).

30. Lisbona, Retorno, 349–50.

31. “Sefarad ’92: El Redecubrimiento de la España Judía, Grupo de Trabajo: Project Sepharad ’92, Spain Visit, Major Jewish Organizations, 1988” (ASF IA, ASF AR6, CJH).

32. Lisbona, Retorno, 352, 358.

33. “ASF Hosts World Sephardi Meeting,” cover page (found in Newsletters box, Sephardic Highlight, 1987–1990, ASF IA, ASF AR6, CJH).

34. Halevi Wise, “Through the Prism of Sepharad,” 15.

35. Benayón, Presidente de Mabat Israel, “Entrevista sobre Mabat Israel,” interviewed by the staff of Aadas y Adafinas de radio RCJ, Paris (PAC, 909– EX.IL03); Mauricio Hatchwell, “En Torno a Sefarad 92, an interview for RCJ,” interviewed by Jimmy Pimienta, Paris, 1992 (PAC, call no. 807-EV.ES03).

36. For more on that separation between the Ladino scholarship and institutions in Israel at the time, see Refael, Ladino, Here and Now.

37. “Romancero Judeoespañol de Marruecos,” 12.

38. See “Del Romancero Judeoespañol,” January 1972, 9; “Morenica,” 2; “Del Romancero Judeoespañol,” August 1971, 9.

39. “Origen y Significado de Algunos Apellidos,” 23.

40. Gerber, “Introduction,” 11–12.

41. Efron, German Jewry and the Allure; Schorsch, “The Myth of Sephardi Supremacy,” 47–66; Gerber, “Introduction,” 11–12.

42. Botbol Hatchuel, “Los Sefardíes y Su Aporte,” 50.

43. Ibid., 51–52.

44. Referring to the verse in the Book of Ovadia 1, 20.

45. Chocrón Serfaty, “Una Carta en Jaquetía,” 35–37.

46. Bendelac, Los Nuestros, book cover.

47. Bendelac, Diccionario del Judeoespañol; Bendelac, Voces Jaquetiescas.

48. Alvar, “A Propósito del Diccionario de Jaquetía,” 44–46.

49. Ibid.

50. “La Jaquetia Que Hablábamos,” 46.

51. Botbol Hachuel, “El Judeo-Español,” 58–62.

52. Heffes, “Botbol Hatchuel, Abraham.”

53. “La Asociación Cultural Sefarad,” 50–52.

54. Bearroch, “La Real Academia Española,” 8–13.

55. “Conferencias de Rabi Baruj Garzón,” 24.

56. Issue number 38 (January-March 1982).

57. “La I Semana Sefaradí de Caracas,” 20–21.

58. In the 1990s, he published two books regarding the history of the Sephardi communities in Venezuela. See Carciente, La Comunidad, and Carciente, Presencia Sefardí; Carciente was also ex-president of the AIV (1970–74) and ex-chairman of the Executive Committee of the main Sephardi Synagogue, Tiferet Israel of Caracas (1978–80).

59. The board of directors included, in addition to Serfaty and Pariente, Amram Abraham Levy Benshimol, Abraham Botbol Hatchuel, Gonzalo Benaím Pinto, Pinhas Cohén Toledano, and Jaime Cohén Toledano—all immigrants from northern Morocco or their descendants.

60. Among the publications by the CESC that appeared in the 1980s, two particularly marked the growing interest in the Sephardi past. The first was Cuentos Españoles, de Sefarad y los Sefardíes, by Adela Alicia Requena (1984), and the second was Romances de Ayer y de Hoy, by Rabí Jacob Benadiba (1986).

61. “Documentos Que Hacen,” 36.

62. Ames, “Spain’s King Honors Sephardi Rabbi.”

63. “Una Plaza y una Avenida,” 12.

64. An overview of such cases is provided in Roumani, “‘Le Juif Espagnol,’” 213–34; Evri, The Return to Al-Andalus.

65. Shukrun and Moreno, “Rethinking Moroccan Transnationalism.”

66. Aizenberg, “Sephardim and Neo-Sephardim,” 129–31.

67. Ibid., 131.

68. Nahón Serfaty, “Las Identidades,” 32–34.

69. “La I Semana Sefaradí,” July-September 1982, 20–21.

70. Kleinbort, “Romances Tradicionales,” 18–25.

71. Gil, “El Romancero,” 3.

72. Among them Don Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Manrique de Lara, Manuel Alvar, Samuel G. Armistead, Joseph H. Silverman, Elena Romero, Iacob M. Hassan, Oro Anahory Librowicz, Larrea Palacín, José Benoliel, Eleonora Noga Alberti-Kleinbort, J. Martínez Ruiz, P. Benichou, Moshé Attías, M. L. Ortega, and many others (see Garzón Serfaty, “El Romancero Sefaradí,” 4).

73. Hassán, “Más Hebraísmos,” 373–428; Benoliel, Dialecto Judeo-Hispano-Marroquí; Ricard, “Cartas de Ricardo Ruiz Orsatti,” 99–115; Bénichou, Romancero Judeo-Español.

7. HISPANIC MOROCCANS IN ISRAEL

1. A circular distributed among MABAT’s members, May 25, 1988, 5, PPC.

I have touched upon the themes discussed in this chapter in a previous article published in European Journal of Jewish Studies (see Moreno, “Inappropriate Voices”).

2. Prior to MABAT, Alfonso Sabah engaged in founding Agudat Sabah, a cultural society founded in Netanya.

3. Records from 1972 by the Jewish Agency documented at least 3,625 individuals who had utilized the agency’s services to immigrate to Israel between 1961 and 1972 (Aharoni, The Aliyah, 1961–1972, 103).

4. Schmelz, Della Pergola, and Avner, Ethnic Differences among Israeli Jews, 15.

5. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 222.

6. The source refers to this group of occupations as necessitating education and training: clerks, teachers, lawyers, physicians, and the like. (See Aharoni, The Aliyah of the Jews of Morocco, 1961–1972, 34, 36, 113.) Since these figures encompass the population of immigrants to Israel from Arzila, Larache, Alcazarquivir, and Ouzane, small towns and villages that witnessed much smaller processes of burgounization, we may deduce that the relative number of such occupations was even higher in Tetouan and all the more so in Tangier.

7. Ibid., 69, 112.

8. Ben-Rafael and Sharot, Ethnicity, Religion and Class, 65, 71.

9. Leon and Cohen, “From the Mizrahi Middle Class Rehabilitation,” 83.

10. A list of telephone numbers of MABAT members in Israel, 1985, PPC. The eventual number of subscribed members is probably higher, since the list did not indicate spouses that had similar phone numbers and address.

11. A. S., “Como Era Nuestra Comunidad?,” 14.

12. A list of YOMAS members including their addresses, 1993, PPC.

13. See the newsletter Comentario Español, distributed and published by the Union de la Colonia Española de Ashdod. I thank David I. Beneish for sharing with me copies of that newsletter.

14. Ilan, “The Voice of the Mizrah,” 213; Rosen Lapidot and Goldberg, “The Triple Loci,” 116.

15. Babis, “The Paradox of Integration,” 2226–43.

16. “Beit Hatfutsot-MABAT Israel, Fiesta de Hanukká-Live,” Tel Aviv (PAC, call no. 804-EV.IL04).

17. Salomon Behayon, no title, MABAT Revista 1 (1989–90): 5.

18. Ouaknine Yekutieli and Nizri, “My Heart Is in the Maghrib,” 165–94.

19. Levy, “Happy Mimouna,” 11–13; Rosen Lapidot and Goldberg, “The Triple Loci.”

20. Avital, “Porque MABAT,” 105. A similar statement was made earlier in a circular distributed among MABAT’s members dated May 25, 1988, 1, PPC.

21. Serels, A History, 177. In an interview for the radio show Aadas y Adafinas in 1987, Shlomo Ben-Ami affirmed this perspective while reflecting on his own childhood memories of Tangier. He argued that a focus on the “deeply rooted” Zionism among the Jews in northern Morocco would make the majority of the Israeli public respect North African Jewish culture more than would the contemporary Mimouna celebration, which he deemed “banal.” (Embajador de Israel en España-Shelomó Ben-Amí, “Patrimonio Judeoespañol, Marroquí de Habla Española-Interview for RCJ,” interviewed by Jimmy Pimienta, Madrid. PAC, call no. 609-PE.IL03.)

22. A circular sent to MABAT members, September 19, 1985, PPC, 2.

23. “Hilula,” 55.

24. Refael, Ladino Here and Now, 76–77.

25. Shcroeter, “Moroccan Jewish Studies,” 85, 89.

26. Tsur, “The Israeli Historiography,” 236–38.

27. Using oral testimonies, Yissachar Ben Ami, for example, collected and complied in the early 1980s a corpus of popular traditions about hundreds of saints scattered throughout two hundred urban and rural Jewish communities in Morocco (see Shcroeter, “Moroccan Jewish Studies,” 89–90).

28. Stillman, “The Academic Study of Islamicate Jewry,” 36.

29. Ben-Ami, “Investigación del Folklore en Israel,” 51–52.

30. Cimenti, “Sarita Benzquen: Cuento,” 52.

31. “Yona Benshimol (z”l),” 15.

32. No author, no title, MABAT Revista 1 (1989–90): 14.

33. See “Concorso MABAT” in a circular sent to MABAT members, January 1982, PPC.

34. A circular sent to MABAT members summarizing the organization’s activity from its founding in November 1979 to April 1988, dated December 13, 1988, PPC; a circular sent to MABAT members, dated September 19, 1985, PPC; Onne, Jewish Communities in Spanish Morocco.

35. Weich [Shahak], “Investigación de la Tradición,” 61–62.

36. Weich Shahak, En Buen Siman!, 184–188.

37. Weich Shahak, “Riqueza Temática,” 89–112; Weich Shahak and Díaz Más, Romancero Sefardí de Marruecos; Weich Shahak, Cantares Y Romances; Weich Shahak, “Passage-Rites in the Judeo-Spanish,” 105–24.

38. Shoshana Weich [Shahak], “Investigación de la Tradición Musical.” The performers were Alicia Bendayan, Ester Davida, Ginette Benabu, Jaky Benabu, Menashe Elbaz, Simi Suissa, Rahma Lucasi, Fortuna Mesas, Elvira Alfasi, Rachel Levy, Yitzhak Ben Ezra, and Floria Bengio. A second edition was issued as a CD in 2001 (Weich Shahak, En Buen Siman!, 184–88). An earlier scholarly project by Oro Anahory Librowicz was aimed at collecting ballad songs from northern Morocco among immigrants in US, Spain, Venezuela, Canada, Israel, and Morocco (Anahory Librowicz, Florilegio de Romances).

39. A circular sent to MABAT members, September 19, 1985, PPC.

40. “MABAT Realice Su Florilegio,” 63.

41. Shabat, “Learning Is Never Boring.”

42. An interview with Yaakov Bentolila (pseudonym), interviewed by the author, 2010, Israel.

43. Pimienta, “Los Cantes de Matesha.” She worked on that article while conducting a project of preservation, mostly at the Ma’ale Adumim Institute for the Documentation of Judeo-Spanish Language and Its Culture affiliated within the Sefarad Society.

44. An interview with Gladys Pimienta, interviewed by the author, 2010, Israel.

45. An interview with Gladys Pimienta, interviewed by the author, 2009, Israel.

46. A letter entitled “Gran Concurso MABAT,” circulated among MABAT members, 1988, PPC.

47. Later, in the early 1990s, the global interest in the Quincentennial and the related transnational collaborations in that regard included the Hebrew university. The Spanish National Committee set up to organize the event traveled to Israel to forge academic collaboration in this regard (presentation of Sefarad ’92) in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem by the president of the National Commission, 9.7.1987 (ASF archives, Projects, Sephard ’92, Spain visit, major Jewish organizations, 1988).

48. Pinto Abecasis, “From Grandmother to Grandson,” 100–18; Alexander and Bentolila, La Palabra en su Hora; Moreno, “De-Westernizing Morocco,” 67–85.

49. Shaul, “Lingüística-La Haketia,” 67.

50. See, for example, the following article appearing in Aki Yerushalayim: Pimienta, “Kantoniko de Haketia,” 63–66.

51. See “La Pajina Djudeo-Españyola de Aki Yerushalayim.”

52. The Gaon Center dedicated the second volume of El-Prezente to the culture of northern Moroccan communities.

53. The list was kindly given to me by Prof. Tamar Alexander, the head of Gaon Center.

54. Additionally, a Journée Haketia (French for Haketia Day) was organized in Ashdod in 2008. The event attracted some fifty participants, gathering them in a hall to partake of a traditional meal. In fact, regardless of its name, the Journée Haketia was followed by an online discourse in French rather than Spanish, or Haketia. Dafina.net, le net des Juifs Marocains, “Forums Dafina - Les Juifs du Maroc - Darkoum- Journee Haketia a Ashdod,” accessed November 11, 2010, http://dafina.net/forums/read.php?50,234289.

55. I can personally testify that, during my visit to their collection, their home would become transformed into an ethnic place, defined by their memories of pre-migration Morocco that dominated the discourse.

56. Pimienta, “Kantoniko de Haketia-La Kopla.”

57. Levy, “Homecoming to the Diaspora,” 98.

58. Schammah Gesser and Pinheiro, “Revisiting Isomorphism,” 305.

59. Kosansky and Boum, “The ‘Jewish Question’ in Postcolonial,” 432–33.

60. Benabu, “Notas de Viaje,” 96.

61. “Congreso de Tangerinos en Terremolinos,” no page number.

62. Ojeda Mata, Modern Spain, 77–78, 80–81.

63. Israel Garzón, Los Judíos, 172; Klecker de Elizalde, “Aspectos Demográficos,” 54, 57.

64. Benhamú Jiménez, La Jaquetía, 24, 32.

65. Jadashot Melilla, Publicación de Casa de Melilla en Jerusalen 1 (January 1995).

8. A GLOBAL HISPANOPHONE DIASPORA

1. A letter circulated among MABAT’s members, September 1981, PPC.

I have touched on parts of the theme discussed in this chapter in my previous article (see Moreno, “The Ingathering,” European Judaism). https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/european-judaism/52/2/ej520211.xml.

2. A letter circulated among MABAT’s members, January 1982, PPC.

3. Ibid.

4. Central and canonic studies in this regard were published by Ella Shohat, Yehuda Sehenav (see introduction).

5. Campoy Cubillo and Sampedro Vizcaya, “Entering the Global Hispanophone.”

6. A. A., “Medinat Israel,” no page number.

7. “La Preocupacion Sionista,” 35–36; A. S., “Los Judíos de Tánger y Su Amor por Sion,” 37–38.

8. A. S., “Como Era Nuestra Comunidad,” 13.

9. “El Keren Kayemet Le-Israel,” 18; “El Bosque de MABAT,” 19.

10. Elbaz, “El Asilo Laredo-Sabah,” 16; No author, no title, MABAT Revista 1 (1989–90): 17.

11. See “Our History,” Bet Elazraki Children’s Home, accessed May 5, 2014, https://elazraki.org/about/our-history/.

12. A. S., “Como Era Nuestra Comunidad,” 13.

13. Avital, “Sionismo en Transición,” 100.

14. Ibid., 104.

15. A letter circulated among MABAT’s members, September 19, 1985, PPC.

16. Kahn, “They Came, They Saw,” 41–54.

17. Avital, “A Boy from the Judería,” 85.

18. Embajador de Israel en España-Shelomó Ben-Amí, “Patrimonio Judeoespañol, Marroquí de Habla Española-Interview for RCJ,” interviewed by Jimmy Pimienta, Madrid (PAC, call no. 609-PE.IL03).

19. Rosen Lapidot and Goldberg, “The Triple Loci,” 5, 9.

20. Roumani, “Le Juif Español,” 233.

21. Ricard, “L’emigration (1932),” 427–29.

22. Bénichou, Romanceros Judéo-Españoles. Constituting an anthology, with variants and extensive scholarly commentary, of sixty-eight romanceros from Morocco. An earlier edition was published in Buenos Aires by the Instituto de Filología in 1946. See also Bénichou, Creación Poética.

23. Pimienta, “Espagnol et Haketía,” 33–34; Sephiha, “Le Judéo-Espagnol du Maroc,” 77–80; Benazeraf, Refranero; Sephiha, “Extinction du Judéo-Espagnol,” 83–88.

24. See, for example, Benazeraf, Refranero.

25. “Vacaciones,” 3.

26. Central works and figures are recapitulated in this volume, including essays by Isaac Benchimol, Manuel Ortega, Blanche Bendahan, Oro Anahory Librowicz, Jose Benoliel, Isaac Benarroch Pinto, and others. The earliest essay was originally composed in 1866 by the director of the AIU schools and addresses the practice among young Jewish émigrés in Latin America of returning to their communities in northern Morocco to marry within the community. For the statement on the influence of MABAT’s congress, see Leibovici, Nuestras Bodas, 6.

27. For additional estimations regarding the total number of Moroccan Jews, see Burgard, “Les Sépharades dans les Études,” 44; Cohen, “The Role of Music,” 203.

28. Miles, “Between Ashkenaz and Québécois,” 35.

29. Roumani, “‘Le Juif Espagnol,’” 233; see also Cohen, “The Role of Music,” 209.

30. Cohen, “Anahory Librowicz”; see Anahory Librowicz, “Florilegio de Romances.”

31. Levy, “En Haketía con Simpatía-Programa RCJ_Poema Con los Apellidos Familias de Tánger,” Paris (PAC, call no. 202-LG.TG21).

32. “Le Congrès Mondial de MABAT,” 37.

33. Ibid., 38.

34. Ibid.

35. A brochure of the Conference, “MABAT-Primer Congreso Mundial, 22–25 Augosto 1983,” PPC.

36. “Fédération Séphardie Canadienne,” 37.

37. Serels, A History, 178.

38. Her notes are stored at the CJH archives in New York.

39. As they attest in an interview (31.1.2020), they felt like tourists fascinated by the country’s culture, which they decided to capture on camara.

40. Interview with Gladys Pimienta, interviewed by the author, Israel, 2010.

41. Serels, A History, 181.

42. Mauricio Hatchwell, “En Torno a Sefarad 92, an interview for RCJ,” Paris (PAC, call no. 202-LG.TG21).

EPILOGUE

1. Hanson, “Deciphering Venezuela’s Emigration Wave,” 356–59.

2. Candia, “Venezuela: Another Jewish Exodus,” 22–25.

3. A total of 683 Venezuelans moved to Israel between 2013 and 2019 (see Reches, “From Ben-Gurion to Venezuelan Converts,” 94–96).

4. While Latinx is a category often used interchangeably with Hispanic in popular and bureaucratic US discourses, it effectively excludes Spanish-speaking populations with origins outside of Latin America, mainly from Spain and former Spanish colonies in Africa.

5. Bokser Liwerant, “Latin American Jews in the United States,” 133; Green, “Transnational Identity and Miami Sephardim,” 135. Constituting a group of a few hundred in Israel as of 2020, Venezuelan Jews, of both Sephardi or Ashkenazi origins, became affiliated with the broader OLEI association, designed for Spanish-speaking Jewish immigrants from Spain and Latin and Central America in the country. An association called Beit Venezuela works to facilitate integration of Venezuelans into Israeli society.

6. Dahan, From the Maghreb to the West, 163–86.

7. An interview with Amram Amsalem, co-interviewed by the author, 2019, Miami.

8. Miami was incorporated as a branch already in 1982 due to a demand of leaders of the Cuban community in the region (see Bejarano, “Transnational Sephardi Zionism,” 351–72).

9. Nae, “Verónica Maya,” 5.

10. Aidi, “Let Us Be Moors,” 43–52.

11. Author’s conversation with Néstor L. Garrido, October 22, 2020.

12. Read more in the “editor’s note” in a letter to the readers published in 2011, on the occasion of Raíces’s twenty-fifth anniversary (Jacobo Israel Garzón, president of the Federation of Jewish Communities of Spain [FCJE]; director of Roots between 1994 and 2005, accessed July 2020, http://www.revista-raices.com/sumarios/raices86/poema.htm).

13. Tetuán (Colección Zocos, Editorial Confluencias, 2017); Los Judíos; Déjalo, Ya Volveremos (Seix Barral, 2006); Los Judíos de Tetuán (2004); Crónica de Una Familia Tetuaní (2003). Another central figure was Ester Bendahan, a member of the community. As historian Adolfo Campoy Cubillo suggested, “Bendahan’s novels can be read as a gradual attempt to come to terms with her own experience as a member of the Sephardic community” (Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 93). She published several novels on the interwoven ancient Sephardic past with modern-day Jewish experience in Spain and North Africa. Among her publications is Soñar con Hispania (with Ester Benari; Ediciones Tantín, 2002).

14. Many of these Israeli writers have engaged in contacts with Spanish institutions and published. Angy Cohen completed her important contribution to the study of this community in a shared program by the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and Complutense University of Madrid (see Cohen, “Recordar, Resistir.”)

15. Weisz, Jews and Muslims, 77.

16. The Casa-Sefard-Israel also helped bestowing finance and support on the part of the Spanish embassy in Venezuela on the CESC (the author’s conversation with Néstor L. Garrido, October 22, 2020).

17. The numeral gap reflects a number of unaffiliated Jews who are not registered in communal organizations.

18. Weisz, Jews and Muslims, 79.

19. Dominguez Diaz, “Once Upon a Time.” The Spanish law was restricted to a period of three years (2015–18) and later extended for one year (see “Ley 12/2015, de 24 de Junio,” Boletín Oficial del Estado 151, Sec. 1: 52557, accessed May 17, 2020, https://www.boe.es/eli/es/l/2015/06/24/12/dof/spa/pdf).

20. They were followed by Colombia with 2,673 applications and Argentina with 1,686. A total of 1,381 applications came from across the US and 149 from Canada. Only 868 applications were made in Turkey and only 860 from Israel (see Gesser Schammah, “Virtually Sephardic?” 200, 214).

21. “Viven Momento Histórico.”

22. The author’s conversation with Néstor L. Garrido, October 26, 2020.

23. Kerem, “Portugal’s Citizenship,” 5.

24. “The First Israeli is Entitled to a Spanish Passport.”

25. Kerem, “Portugal’s Citizenship,” 5.

26. In 2010, Amazônia Judaica Historical Archive was founded by the center (www.amazoniajudaica.com.br).

27. Amazônia Judaica 20, 5, 12, 29.

28. Author’s conversation with Elias Salgado, February 2022.

29. For a more in-depth exploration of these developments and complexities, refer to Elbaz, “Looking at the ‘Other,’” 406–407. For further exploration of the dispute regarding the Hispanic and North African origins of northern Moroccan Jews, refer to Campoy Cubillo, Memories, 90–93.

30. See, for example, one of the several articles published on this initiative: https://zamane.ma/tanger-rencontre-internationale-dediee-a-lhistoire-des-juifs-du-nord-du-maroc-zamane/

CONCLUSIONS

1. Khachig Tölölyan, “Elites and Institutions in the Armenian Transnational,” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 9, no.1 (2000): 107–36; Judith Bokser Liwerant, “Globalization, Diasporas, and Transnationalism: Jews in the Americas,” Contemporary Jewry (2022): 1–43.

2. Tölölyan, “Diaspora Studies”; Brubaker, “The ’Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 6; Miles and Sheffer, “Francophonie and Zionism.”

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1. Vered, “The Little-Known Cuisine of Spain’s Moroccan Jews.”

2. Axel, “The Context of Diaspora,” 29.