Notes

Preface

1. Varvara Dernova, “Garmoniia Skriabina,” diss., Leningrad Conservatory, 1973; Roy J. Guenther, “Varvara Dernova’s Garmoniia Skriabina: A Translation and Critical Commentary,” Ph.D. diss., The Catholic University of America, 1979; Faubion Bowers, The New Scriabin: Enigma and Answers (New York, 1973); and Guenther, “Varvara Dernova’s System of Analysis of the Music of Scriabin,” in Russian Theoretical Thought in Music, edited by Gordon D. McQuere (Ann Arbor, 1983). The last two publications contain summaries of Demova’s theory.

2. George Perle, “Scriabin’s Self Analysis,” Music Analysis 3/2, 1984.

3. Nicholas Cook, A Guide to Musical Analysis (London, 1987).

4. G. Bogdanova, Russian National Traditions in Prokofiev’s Music (Moscow, 1961).

5. See Detlef Gojowy, “Half Time for Nikolai Roslavets (1881-1944), A Non-Love Story with a Post-Romantic Composer,” in Russian and Soviet Music: Essays for Boris Schwarz, edited by Malcolm Hamrick Brown (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1984).

6. In McQuere, ed., Russian Theoretical Thought in Music.

1. Introduction and Historical Background

1. Biographical information on composers mentioned here can be found in the Biographical Dictionary of Russian-Soviet Composers, edited by A. B. Ho and D. Feofanov (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989).

2. Boris Schwarz, Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia, 1917-1981 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), p. 102.

3. For discussion on the date of this painting, see Michel C. Lacoste, Kandinsky (New York: Crown, 1979).

4. English translations by M. T. H. Sadler, as The Art of Spiritual Harmony (London, 1914); and Ralph Manheim, as Concerning the Spiritual in Art (New York, 1947).

5. For details of the relationship between Kandinsky and Schoenberg, see Jelena HahlKoch, ed., Arnold Schoenberg, Wassily Kandinsky, Letters, Pictures, Documents (London: Faber, 1984).

6. The exhibition called Art of the Avant-Garde in Russia, held at the Royal Academy of the Arts in London in 1983, revealed this period to be one of varied and intense experiment. See the exhibition catalogue Art of the Avant-Garde in Russia (London: Thames and Hudson, 1983). For further details of this period, see Benedikt Livshits, “L’Archer a un oeil et demi,” L’Age d’homme (Lausanne, 1971); and Camilla Gray, The Great Experiment: Russian Art, 1863-1922 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1962).

7. See Nadezhda Mandelshtam, Hope Abandoned (London, 1975); this book also contains some biographical sketches.

8. There was a period when Skriabin was disregarded in Russia, along with the rest of the avant-garde. Later his work was reinstated, and today he is considered one of the greatest composers. According to Boris Schwarz (see note 2), his popularity is exceeded only by Beethoven and Tchaikovsky.

9. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries there was a flow of musical influence from Russia to the West. It was followed by a return flow of Western influence, which helped spark the Modernist movement in Russia. See the discussion in chapter 14 below, and also Leonid Sabaneyev, “Russian Music in the Light of European Influences,” translated by S. W. Pring, Musical Opinion, February 1929, pp. 447-49; and Sabaneyev, “Musical Tendencies in Contemporary Russia,” translated by S. W. Pring, Musical Quarterly, 1930, pp. 469-81.

10. For a full discussion of this subject see Robert C. Ridenour, Nationalism, Modernism, and Personal Rivalry in Nineteenth-Century Russian Music (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1981).

11. Assotsiatsiia sovremennoy muziki. The association had its own journal, Sovremmenaia muzyka [Contemporary music], with editors Leonid Sabaneev, Viktor Belayev, and Derzhanovsky. It was published monthly, 1924-1929.

12. Stanley Dale Krebs, Soviet Composers and the Development of Soviet Music (London, 1970), p. 49.

13. Proletarskaia kul’tura. There is some evidence that Lunacharsky had a hand in organizing the original Proletcult. See Krebs (note 12), p. 40. See note 14 below.

14. Narodnyi komissariat prosveshcheniia. Anatoly V. Lunacharsky (b. 1875 at Poltava, in the Ukraine; d. 1933 at Menton, in France) was appointed by Lenin as head of Narkompros in 1917. Lunacharsky was an author, publicist, and politician; together with Maksim Gorky he was largely responsible for the preservation of works of art during the Civil War of 1918-1920. In 1898 he was deported for his revolutionary activities, but he returned to Russia and was arrested and imprisoned during the disturbances of 1905. In 1909 he joined Gorky on Capri. Lunacharsky was interested in the problem of religion in the Socialist state, and in 1909 he published a book entitled Outlines of a Collective Philosophy, which dealt with this subject. In 1917 he returned to Russia together with Trotsky and Lenin. Although sacked from his position in Narkompros in 1929, in September of that year he was made chairman of the Academic Committee under the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. In 1933 he became Soviet Ambassador to Spain and died on his way to take up his appointment. Of his numerous books only three have been translated into English, under the title Three Plays (1923).

15. Assotsiatsiia proletarskikh muzykantov. Later the prefix russiiskaia was added (RAPM). Whereas Proletcult had been involved mainly in music education for the masses, RAPM was more definitely anti-Classical and anti-Modemist.

16. Muzykalnaia kultura 3, 1924. Elsewhere Roslavets acknowledged his debt to Skriabin; see Nikolai A. Roslavets, “O Sebe i Svoem Tvorchestve,” Sovremmenaia muzyka 5 (November/December 1924):132.

17. Muzyka i oktyabr 4 and 5, 1926.

18. Istoria muzyki narodov SSSR 1 (Moscow, 1966):46, 47.

19. Klara Zetkin, “Lenin i Iskusstvo,” O Literatuure i Iskusstve (Moscow, 1957), p. 583. Trotsky too favored gradual change and development in the field of culture; see Leon Trotsky, Literature and Revolution (Moscow, 1923); English translation (New York, 1957).

20. Pokrovsky, Lunacharsky, and Trotsky were friends and joined the Bolshevik Party together in July 1917. See Krebs (note 12 above), p. 33.

21. Anatoly Lunacharsky, V mire muzyki (Moscow, 1931), pp. 308-11.

22. Edward J. Brown, The Proletarian Phase in Russian Literature, 1928-32, (New York, 1953), pp. 235-40.

23. Muzykal’nyi otdel (Muzo).

24. Ak muzo narkompros (academic subdivision of the music division of Narkompros); Gosudarstvennyi institut istorii iskusstv.

25. Gosudarstvennyi institut muzykal’noi nauki.

26. For a discussion of the theoretical work of Konus, Garbuzov, Rozanov, Sabaneev and Iavorsky, see Ellon D. Carpenter, “Russian Music Theory: A Conspectus” and “The Contributions of Taneev, Catoire, Conus, Garbuzov, Mazel and Tiulin,” in Russian Theoretical Thought in Music, edited by Gordon D. McQuere (Ann Arbor, 1983). Reference is made to Iavorsky’s theory and his writings in chapter 8 of the present book.

27. Gosudarstvennaia akademiia khudozhestvennykh nauk.

28. The Mussorgsky Reader, translated by J. Leyda and S. Bertensson (New York, 1947), p. 215.

29. Klara Zetkin, Reminiscences of Lenin (London, 1929), p. 14.

30. Alexander Werth, Musical Uproar in Moscow (London, 1949), pp. 87, 89.

31. Intonatsiia (intonation). Used as a technical term to describe the characteristic sounds of folk music. Equivalent to the term “inflections” as applied to speech.

32. For a more detailed discussion of the musical background of this period in Russia, see Boris Schwarz and Stanley Krebs (see listings in Selected Bibliography). For a discussion of the political background from a Western viewpoint, see Paul Johnson, A History of the Modem World from 1917 to the 1980s (London, 1983), chapters 1 and 2. For a contemporary Russian view, see Ilya Ehrenburg, People and Life, 1891-1921, translated by A. Bostock and Y. Kapp (New York, 1962); and Ehrenburg, Memoirs: 1921-1941, translated by T. Shebunina and Y. Kapp (London, 1963; New York, 1964). For a general view of the visual arts, see Naum Gabo, Constructions, Sculptures, Paintings, Drawings, Engravings (London, 1957). For the viewpoint of Soviet Realism, see Lyudmilla Polyakova, Soviet Music (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1961). For an assessment of the viewpoint of the Russian public, see Leonid Sabaneyev, “Musical Tendencies in Contemporary Russia,” Musical Quarterly, 1930, pp. 469-81. For a musician’s account of personal life in Russia after the Revolution, see A. Gretchaninov, My Life, translated by N. Slonimsky (New York, 1952).

33. Library sources for works mentioned in this book can be found in the Index of Scores Consulted.

34. References in the present study are made to the works of Stravinsky where appropriate, but his is a rather different case from those of Skriabin and Prokofiev. Although his compositions from The Firebird to Les Noces and the Symphonies of Wind Instruments are distinctly Russian, they follow an increasingly original course. There is already an extensive literature on Stravinsky. His piano works have been the subject of a special study; see Charles M. Joseph, Stravinsky and the Piano (Ann Arbor, 1983).

35. See chapter 4, note 15.

2. Skriabin: Harmony and Tonality

1. See Preface, note 1.

2. The subject of folk music and its relation to symmetry in Russian music theory, as expressed in the writings of Borislav Iavorsky and Sergei V. Protopopov, is dealt with in chapter 8.

3. This is a common idiom in Russian music and is discussed more fully in chapter 6. In Op. 58 the opening C and the concluding F-sharp/B are directly related to the examples quoted from Skriabin’s earlier works. However, the C, F, and B represent the overall plan.

4. Hugh MacDonald, Skryabin (Oxford, 1978), pp. 59-64, gives examples of the melodic use of the major/minor 3rd in Skriabin’s music. See also the discussion of the major/minor 3rd of the scale in chapter 9 of the present study.

5. In considering the octatonic coloring of some of Skriabin’s late works, it should be noted that (in an octatonic context) the root of any of his chords is usually one of those four notes of the octatonic collection from which the ascending scale would begin with a semitone and proceed with the minor and major 3rd and augmented 4th. In this context the perfect 4th is as much a foreign element as it is in the whole-tone or dominant chord context of earlier works.

6. Dernova analyzes this opening chord as a selection of notes from two tritone-related dominant-structured 7ths, with their added 6ths (see Example i). This, however, is not a musically meaningful concept: without the D-flat and C-sharp the two alleged dominant chords cannot be recognized, the opening harmony does not sound like a bichord, and it is impossible, at this point, to hear the A as a separate root.

7. The final E triad with added notes is unusual for Skriabin and close to procedures in Prokofiev; see chapter 4.

8. The tritones in bar 1 demonstrate an extension of the principle shown in Examples 2-23 and 2-24. When a chord containing one or more tritones is transposed a tritone, the two chords will have one or more tritones in common.

9. At the beginning of bar 3, F-sharp is heard as the principal note but Skriabin’s notation treats C as the root and so reminds us that the minor 3rd from the root came into his chords as a result of holding over the added 6th when the bass moved a tritone, as at bars 35-36 of Op. 59 No. 1. Another ambiguity arises at bar 4 and all similar passages: the final A here sounds like a root but the notation of the arpeggio is as for E-flat. At the end of the piece the progression from the half note A in bar 30, over the root F-sharp (bar 27) to the final A-sharp (B-flat), relates to the harmony on the second beat of the opening bar, with the major/minor 3rd conflict (A/B-flat) now resolved as A moves to B-flat (A-sharp). However, Skriabin’s notation of the final bars indicates that it would be equally possible to make out a case for C being the theoretical root, as on the first beat of bar 1, in which case the A would be an added 6th moving to the minor 7th.

There are further clashes between the major and minor 3rd from the root in bars 4, 7, and 8. In bar 4, in the ascending arpeggio, C is an appoggiatura to D-flat (major 3rd in the chord of A), but at the top (and descending until the D-flat returns), C is treated as a harmony note.

10. For a discussion of some of the characteristics of Russian folk song and its influence see chapters 7, 8, and 9.

3. Composers Influenced by Skriabin

1. Charles M. Joseph, Stravinsky and the Piano (Ann Arbor, 1983), pp. 40-54.

2. Faubion Bowers, Scriabin (Palo Alto, 1969), vol. 2, p. 248.

3. Leonid Sabaneyev, “Vyshnegradsky’s Tonal System,” Musical Times, October 1933, pp. 886-88. Vishnegradsky’s method of performance—two orthodox pianos tuned a quarter tone apart—has been revived by the French composer Alain Louvier, now head of the Paris Conservatoire. Louvier’s Concerto for Orchestra (1982) has half the orchestra tuned to normal pitch and half a quarter tone lower. A solo clarinet, by quarter-tone trills, unites the two pitches. Vishnegradsky used up to six pianos tuned at equal divisions of the semitone, each piano being tuned traditionally within itself.

4. For a discussion of the origins of the octatonic scale, see chapter 9.

5. With Skriabin this procedure usually involves a tritone or minor-3rd progression in the bass.

6. According to Sabaneyev, this tune is a traditional Russian Hebrew melody. Krein’s father made an extensive collection of Russian Hebrew music.

7. See Op. 59 No. 1, bars 35-36 and Op. 58, bars 1-2.

8. An example can be seen in “L’ile des Sirènes,” at bars 48-50, where the bass descends chromatically from G-flat to E.

9. Such bichordal effects were by this time common, a well-known example being the “Petrushka” chord, from Stravinsky’s ballet of that name. See chapter 10.

10. See chapter 6 for a discussion of long-range harmonic associations.

11. The second chord in bar 4 is also dominant-structured, but the growing independence of the bass here modifies the effect.

12. Something similar occurs in bars 2-3 of Skriabin’s Op. 74 No. 5. In this piece Skriabin has abandoned his “dominant” coloring and adopted a generally octatonic resonance. It is interesting to note the “4th” relationship (B-flat/E-flat) between the first and last bars of this piece (compare with the Roslavets composition).

4. Prokofiev: An Enlarged Tonal System

1. Progressive tonality was by this time well known. An example was Nielsen’s Symphony No. 1, composed in 1891-1892. Nielsen continued to use the technique until his late work Commotio, a long piece for organ composed in 1931. Mahler’s symphonies, with the exception of Nos. 1, 6, and 8, also demonstrate progressive tonality.

2. Rimsky-Korsakov dealt with tritone and major 3rd progressions in his book. The former he called “false” progressions. Examples are to be found in his works, including the scene in which the Snow Maiden melts, in the opera of that name. Rimsky-Korsakov used such devices only in the more fantastic scenes in his operas; Prokofiev used them freely. See Nikolai Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov, Prakticheskii uchebtiik garmonii [A practical manual of harmony], translated by Joseph Achron (New York, 1930).

3. Sabaneev, writing in 1927, remarked that so far no one except the composer had attempted to play Feinberg’s Sonatas because of their great technical difficulty. See Leonid Sabaneyev, Contemporary Russian Composers (New York, 1927; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1975).

4. Boris Vladimirovich Asaf’yev, (pseud. Igor Glebov), Muzykal’naia forma kak protsess, Muzsector Gosizdata (Moscow and Leningrad, 1930). Book 2, Intonatsiia, (Moscow and Leningrad: Muzgig, 1947). English translation by James R. Tull, as “B. V. Asaf’ev’s Musical Form as a Process,” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1977.

5. Pyotr Il’ich Tchaikovsky, Rukovodstvo k prakticheskomu izucheniiu garmonii [A guide to the practical study of harmony] (reprint, Moscow, 1957), vol. 3a, p. 66. English translation by Emil Krall and James Leibling (Canoga Park, 1970).

6. Ibid., p. 29.

7. Ibid., p. 19.

8. Ibid., p. 43.

9. Ibid., p. 150.

10. I. Nestev, Prokofiev (Moscow, 1957), p. 368.

11. For a discussion of Russian folk song and its influence on Modernism, see chapters 8, 9, and 10. Example ii, a wedding lament from the Usvyaty region, illustrates how voices can move in and out of phase.

Boris Asaf’yev, in his books Musical Form as a Process (see note 4 above) and Glinka, refers to the folk influence in Russian music, especially its effect on the voice-led nature of Glinka’s harmony and the influence that had on the whole Russian school.

12. The use of parallel chord progressions is often attributed to French influence. However, there are many examples of parallel triadic progressions in Russian folk song of which Examples iii and iv are samples.

G. Bogdanova, in Russian National Traditions in the Music of S. S. Prokofiev (Moscow, 1961), attributes parallel progressions in Prokofiev’s music to the direct influence of folk song. It is possible that employment of this device by Debussy, together with his use of exotic scales, owes something to what he heard of Russian music during his early visit to Russia and at the Universal Exhibition of 1889 in Paris.

13. Russian Nationalist composers were also suspicious of the dominant 7th in root position. Mikhail Glinka, in his Memoirs (Moscow, 1953), referred to the “excessive use of the dominant 7th in the root position” (p. 172).

14. For a discussion of the 0, 4, 7, 10 chord as a modal final in folk music, see below, chapter 7. Tchaikovsky did not allow that there could be an augmented 6th on the minor 6th of the scale. He insisted that such a chord was really an altered dominant and that the chord of resolution must be regarded as a tonic and not a dominant (see Tchaikovsky, note 5 above). Rimsky-Korsakov did recognize the augmented 6th on the flattened submediant. This controversy is interesting in view of the frequent ambiguity between augmented 6th and dominant functions in Russian music. See also Ellon D. Carpenter, “Russian Music Theory: A Conspectus,” in Russian Theoretical Thought in Music, edited by Gordon D. McQuere (Ann Arbor, 1983), pp. 20 and 21.

15. Russian music theory allows the use of the flattened 4th of the scale (including the augmented 6th chord in this position), possibly because of the occurrence of the flattened 4th in folk song along with the minor 3rd and minor 2nd of the scale. This also influences the notation adopted by composers; for example, the opening of Miaskovsky’s Sonata No. 3 (Example 6-38). It is doubtful however, in a harmonic context, whether the flattened 4th can be distinguished from the major 3rd.

16. Structural pitches, which point toward later sections of the work over longer spans of time, are used by Mosolov and are discussed when dealing with his Sonata No. 2 in chapter 12, below.

17. Skriabin, too, in his Prelude Op. 11 No. 10, applies added notes to the opening tonic chord. In Skriabin’s case however the neighboring tones lead out of the chord and have an expansive and coloristic effect.

18. The opposite of this weighting of the tonic triad is heard when the function of tonic is vested in a bare 5th (Example 4-7) or in a single note (Example 4-36, bar 24).

19. A definition of the ostinato principle and an examination of its use in Russian music, including works by Prokofiev, appears below, in chapter 5.

20. The reader who wishes to trace these and other technical devices in the postModernist works of Prokofiev will find the choruses “Russia the Motherland” and “Arise You Russian People” and the aria “In the Field of the Dead”—all from Aleksandr Nevsky— and Symphony No. 5 especially helpful. String Quartet No. 2 and the settings of the folk songs “Little Green Grove,” “White Snowflakes,” and “Sashenka” also reveal Prokofiev’s sympathy for the native folk-song idiom.

21. Similar cadences occur in the works of more-traditional composers. Example v shows the final cadence in the first of three folk-song settings by Rachmaninov, Op. 41.

5. Techniques Associated with the Russian School

1. An analysis of this piece has been given by M. C. Joseph; see chapter 1, note 34.

6. Some General Aspects of Technique

1. For a review of these works by Rebikov, see W. H. Dale, “A Study of the Musicopsychological Dramas of Rebikov,” diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1955.

2. For examples of chords built from 4ths and 5ths in Western music of this period, see Wilfred Dunwell, The Evolution of 20th Century Harmony (London, 1960), Mosco Carner, A Study of Twentieth-Century Harmony (London, 1942); and Gerald Abraham, The Concise Oxford History of Music (London, 1979), pp. 797, 798.

3. See Jim Samson, Music in Transition (London, 1977), p. 11.

4. Examples of pattern as the justification of harmonic progression in Western music are given by Dunwell, pp. 98-122 (see note 2 above).

5. For other analyses of Syntheses Nos. 1-5, see the Index of Musical Examples.

6. Examples of progression by similar conjunct motion in French music of this period are given in René Lenormand, Etude sur L’Harmonie Moderne, English translation by Herbert Antcliffe (London: Joseph Williams, 1915). Examples from other Western composers are discussed in Dunwell and in Carner (see note 2 above).

7. See chapter 2 for examples of this progression in the early works of Skriabin. It also occurs in Russian compositions of a more traditional style from around the early Modernist period. Example vi, from Grechaninov, is of interest for the way the music is pulled around to B-flat in the last line by the tritone and semitone progression F, C-flat, B-flat, despite the final sound of the last bass F.

8. A further instance of the partial compression of this formula occurs in the cadence quoted from Kriukov in Example 6-35. The sixteenth-note passage arrives at C, which is further emphasized in the right hand at the end, while the final chord is a compression of F and G-flat.

9. Lourié’s complex represents a synthesis of several of the techniques discussed so far: neighboring-tone technique, harmonic compression, dominant-sounding complexes, and the tritone and semitone formula.

10. As already mentioned in the case of Skriabin, the weakening of tonality meant that the harmonic coloring of the individual chord became increasingly important.

11. Prokofiev’s procedure in emphasizing the upper and lower neighboring tones of the central E (F and D in bars 3-5) before returning to the original pitch in bar 7 is close to what happens in some folk songs. In Example vii the upper voice—where marked—breaks away to give some emphasis to F-sharp before returning to E two bars later. In Example viii the lower neighbor, A, is left unresolved for two bars before returning to B. In multiverse songs this alternation between the modal center and the lower neighbor is one of the devices used to secure a return to the beginning of the tune, as in the C and B-flat line endings in Example ix.

7. Tonality and Tonal Structures

1. “Reference chord” refers to a recurring harmony used to emphasize a particular pitch or collection of pitches. Chords of sufficiently striking character are also used as references to mark stages in the unfolding of a structure, as in A. Krein’s Sonata Op. 34. See discussion in chapter 12.

2. A similar expansion of tonality can be traced in Western music. In Debussy’s L’lsle joyeuse (1907) tonality is vested mainly in the A major triad, independently of traditional harmonic functions. In Bartók’s Bagatelle Op. 6 No. 2 tonality at the end centers on the single note D-flat. See discussion in Jim Samson, Music in Transition (London: Dent, 1977), chapter 3.

3. The first movement of the Sonatina is a sonata form, as indicated by the ending of the exposition on the dominant and its later recapitulation in the tonic. There is no thematically distinct second subject.

4. The peculiar effect discussed here, whereby either of two 4th-related notes could serve as a final, or “tonic,” is no doubt influenced by the vast quantity of Russian folk music which has a plagal structure. A great many Russian folk songs are based on a nonrepeating scale of overlapping segments, each having the range of a 4th, as in Example x. Two or three modal centers may form the basis of a song, one of which will be chosen as the final. A cadence is most commonly formed by moving from one modal center to the next (sometimes with the second of the modal scale segments intervening) and the equivalence of these centers is demonstrated by the fact that the cadential movement can be in either direction. In Example xi the treble line cadences in bar 5 by rising from B. Examples xii and xiii are both based on the double 4th, representing three modal “nodes” of the scale. It is instructive to compare the structure of these songs with the double-4th ostinatos in Feinberg’s Prelude Op. 15 No. 3, which summarize the three 4th-related pitch centers of the opening bars (see Example 5-24). Cadences in Russian music often have a special emphasis on the subdominant; see Example 4-16, bar 26.

If a song with three modal centers has an instrumental accompaniment, it will normally consist of three triads whose roots correspond to the three modal centers. In such a case, if the middle mode is chosen as the final, the higher and lower modal centers will tend— at least to Western ears—to assume a subdominant and dominant function. Example xiv, an instrumental piece, does not modulate to E. E is the principal modal center throughout, and the D-sharps and D-naturals are the result of gravitational attractions toward E and A, A being a secondary modal center.

There is no firm line dividing the evolved system of Russian modes from the Classical cycle of 5ths. Russian modes, like the artificial ecclesiastical modes, tend toward major and minor when the delicate modal balance is disturbed. Instrumental accompaniment, by emphasizing the vertical, tends to disturb the balance. The Russian government policy of encouraging the use of piano accordions, with their fixed pitch and equal temperament, is currently disturbing the balance further.

5. Several tritone and adjacent semitone patterns are involved in this cadence, as shown in Example xv. See discussion in chapters 2 and 6.

6. The many examples of movement between relative major and minor in Western music normally involve the use of functional dominants. Occasionally a piece begins and ends in different modes. “Aveu” from Schumann’s Camaval illustrates both points.

7. It is now generally accepted that modal variability of the minor 3rd in nineteenth-century Russian Nationalist music can ultimately be traced to folk song. The interval of a minor 3rd characterizes folk music in several ways; a common formula for a work song incorporates three consecutive notes covering the range of a 3rd. Both Kazuyuki Tanimoto and Gennady Tsitovich, writing respectively on Russian and Belorussian traditional music in The New Grove, comment on this basic formula, which is especially associated with calendar songs (see the article “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics”). In Belorussia the minor 3rd range is specific to the harvest ritual songs (see also Examples xvi, xvii, and xviii). The minor 3rd relationship may also exist between a recitation note and an accompanying drone, as illustrated in Example xix.

In songs of a more developed character the minor 3rd may be expressed clearly in the form of modal variability. In Example xx, the principal voice enters on E and the second voice with a C-sharp. In bar 5 the tune cadences in orthodox folk style by rising a 4th to E, at the termination of the second line of words. When the text is repeated in the next three bars, the voices, after the cadence, switch suddenly to C-sharp and end on that note. The process is repeated twice during the song. Evidently the two notes on which the voices enter have affected the mode throughout, and the E and C-sharp are of equal value. The same modal variability of the minor 3rd—here G and B-flat—is evident in Example xxi.

8. The tendency of Russian composers to carry these minor and major 3rds shifts to their logical conclusion, by extending them to a series which divides the octave symmetrically, is discussed in chapter 8.

9. Major 3rd shifts also occur in Western music. Usually they are smoothed by the use of functional dominants, though sudden jumps also happen, as in Example xxii.

The major 3rd shifts discussed in the text are reminiscent of the major 3rd sequences which divide the octave symmetrically in some of the late works of Skriabin, such as his Prelude Op. 73 No. 1. There is a precedent for these in the experiments in symmetry carried out by Rimsky-Korsakov (Example 2-26). Similar progressions also occur in the works of Prokofiev. It is likely that the inspiration for these major 3rd progressions came from Rimsky-Korsakov’s explorations in folk music. Calendar songs having the major 3rd range are common throughout Russia, and in Belorussia this feature is especially characteristic of songs associated with the spring festival. Many Armenian songs display modal variability of the major 3rd, and some of them were well known in Russia in the nineteenth century as a result of the establishment of Armenian publishing houses. In Example 9-9, a lyric song collected by Komitas, the emphasis shifts from A-flat to C-flat when the compass of the song expands to a 4th in bars 5 and 6 and then returns to A-flat at the end. Sometimes a drone takes part in emphasizing the major 3rd. In Example xxiii the lowest voice moves from G to E-flat with sustained notes which produce some quite striking modal shifts. There are also many precedents in folk song for ending a piece in a mode a major 3rd removed from the one in which it began, as in Example xxiv, a twentieth-century folk song sung by Kenen Azerbaiev, a famous Kazakh folk singer. Example xi, in note 4 above, is bimodal at the major 3rd, with the top voice cadencing on E and the lower voice on C.

10. The triadic relationship of pitch centers in Russian music also has a precedent in folk song. Many of the simpler songs have a 5/3 or 6/4A basis; see Examples xxv and xxvi. A striking illustration of the triadic relationship of phrase endings is found in Example xxvii. The song generally is based on the triad of G but the phrase endings at bars 4, 8, 11, 14, 16, and 18 and at the end make up the triad of D major. A more elaborate demonstration of this triadic structure is the song with dutar accompaniment shown in Example xxviii. Extensive sections end on E, C, and A, and the bass of the accompaniment commences on C and ends with the perfect 4th A/E. This kind of developed composition would traditionally be performed by professional musicians as a medium for telling epic stories or Russian legend.

Example xxix combines some of the characteristics of Russian music noted in this chapter. It is based on the triad of F with a shift to D at each cadence. Lines 2, 3, 5, and 6 each begin on the upper neighboring tone, and overall each of these lines has a descending 4th G/D.

11. The concept of a “control” pitch or chord is developed more fully at the end of chapter 10 in dealing with Lourié’s Syntheses No. 4. An obvious example of a device to keep the tonal gravitations of a passage under control is the tritone. Together with its associated triad it subverts either the tonic or the dominant according to whether the tritone functions as an augmented 4th or a diminished 5th of the scale. Other examples encountered in Russian music include the major triad on the leading tone in the minor mode and the major triad on the sharpened dominant in the major, both of which occur in the Lourié piece. These harmonies are also discussed as functions of neighboring-tone technique in chapter 4.

8. A New Aesthetic: Symmetry as a Basis of Structure

1. The ascending form of the octatonic collection which commences with a semitone is also an example of the first category mentioned here. It is symmetrical around a note which is external to the scale.

2. For details of the modes of limited transposition see Olivier Messiaen, The Technique of My Musical Language (Paris: Leduc, 1944).

3. The dominant minor 9th with perfect 5th is also compatible with the octatonic scale but does not have the potential for symmetrical arrangement.

4. The scale employed in the whole phrase is symmetrical around B-flat with the exception of the passing D in bar 5.

5. The pitching of notes in unaccompanied folk song is variable and has a markedly different effect from singing to the accompaniment of traditional fretted instruments like the balalaika. Standard music notation gives only an approximate idea of the intonation, which is to some extent affected by speech inflection. Example xxx has the variable 3rd; the A-flat, where marked +, is neutral—somewhere between A-flat and A-natural.

6. In this song there is also a suggestion of modal variability between D and F with a secondary symmetry around the major 3rd F/A.

The focusing mentioned in the text occurs when a folk song constantly cadences on the middle one of three modal points arranged in 4ths, as in Example xxxi. If the song cadences on the lowest point there is no focus (Example xxxii). The focusing is often stronger in a polyphonic setting (Example xxxiii). In the last example the lead voices, as is customary, set out the basis of the modal structure (G/C), and the alternate voices then supply the D. The structure of the song is heard throughout most clearly in the bass. Another important feature of this song is the short coda, in which the modal final is expanded with the use of the major 3rd and minor 7th.

7. Another instance of emphasis on the 4th of the scale is shown in Example xxxiv. Example xxxiv. A. Tcherepnin: Toccata Op. 1, bars 7-9.

8. L. N. Lebedinsky, Bashkir Folk Songs and Melodies (Moscow, 1965).

9. The original Chasidim were members of a Jewish sect which sprang up in the second century B.C. According to some authorities it originated in the revolt of the Maccabees against ideas brought into the Jewish faith by the study of Grecian philosophy. Saminsky believed that the religious songs of the modern-day Russian Chasidim preserve an ancient tradition.

10. This example is quoted by Elliott Antokoletz, together with other instances of symmetry in twentieth-century music, in The Music of Bela Bartók (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1984).

11. It was at these discussions that Iavorsky conceived the idea of “intonation” in folk music as being the equivalent of speech inflection. This concept has since become widely used in Russia and indeed in the study of folk music outside of Russia. Among those present at these discussions were Nadezhda Iakovlevna Brusova, who later became a pupil of Iavorsky and was a noted Russian theorist, and the composer Reingol’d Glier. See Ellon D. Carpenter, “Russian Music Theory: A Conspectus,” in Russian Theoretical Thought in Music, edited by Gordon D. McQuere (Ann Arbor, 1983).

12. Boleslav Y. Iavorsky, Stroenie muzykal’noi rechi (Moscow, 1908).

13. For details, see Carpenter (note 11 above).

14. Sergei V. Protopopov, Elementy stroeniia muzykal’noi rechi, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1930-31).

15. The combined effect of the chromatic neighboring tones and the double 4th is contained in the French 6th.

16. Collected by A. M. Listopadov in 1904. Published in News of the Society of Connoisseurs of Musical Ethnography, St. Petersburg.

17. The element of tonality is also important in this work, a fuller analysis of which appears in chapter 12.

18. It does not seem appropriate to apply the term “development” to these passages. As with much Russian music there is little development in the Classical sense. Messiaen’s term “commentary” accurately conveys the style.

9. Scales: Their Origins and Application

1. Gerald Abraham has written: “The wholetone scale sounds unpleasantly artificial only when the actual thematic material is based on it.” “We feel that it is unnatural for a composer to be ‘inspired’ in the wholetone scale because the wholetone scale is not yet a part of the current idiom” (On Russian Music [London, 1939], pp. 64, 65).

There is a difference between the octatonic and the whole-tone segments found in folk music and the complete scales used by Russian composers. The former are the result of modal gravitations, and the latter are the result of a conscious decision to carry the implications of these gravitations to their logical conclusions.

2. Victor M. Belayev, Central Asian Music, translated by Mark and Greta Slobin (Middletown, Conn., 1975).

3. For further discussion of these work cries, see “Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,” The New Grove, Section IX, Russian SFSR, p. 389; also Section III, Belorussia, p. 354.

4. The zhaleika is a single-reed instrument with three to seven finger holes. Some are tunéd to a diatonic scale, but in the Iaroslavl region, just north of Moscow, a zhaleika tuned to a scale of four whole tones is heard. See the articles cited in note 3 above.

5. The Armenian song was collected by the Armenian musicologist Komitas. The text refers to the experiences of the Armenian people in the Middle Ages, and the song may date back to those times. Armenian music is especially well developed and preserved, partly as a result of the development of Khaz notation as early as the eighth century.

The Hebrew song was collected and arranged by Saminsky as a result of his work with the Ethnographical Expedition of Baron Horatio Guinsbourg during the first quarter of the twentieth century. (See Saminsky’s preface to his Op. 22 collection, published in 1926 by Carl Fischer.)

6. There is no record of a complete whole-tone or octatonic scale appearing in a single folk song. The sounds of these scales, however, as represented by segments and characteristic intonations, have been familiar to Russian ears for centuries.

7. Belayev (see note 2 above), chapters 1 and 2.

8. Enrique Alberto Arias, “Alexander Tcherepnin’s Thoughts on Music,” Perspectives on New Music, 1982-83.

9. This scale could be described as the 0,6,10 scale after its most characteristic intervals. Françoise Gervais identifies it as the 64th Hindu Karnatic mode, called “Vachaspati” (“Etude comparée des langues harmoniques de Fauré et de Debussy,” La Revue Musicale ½72, 273 [1971]:41).

Ann K. McNamee has pointed out that the scale occurs in Polish folk music, where it is known as the Podhalean mode (“Bitonality, Mode, and Interval in the Music of Karol Szymanowski,” Journal of Music Theory 29 [1985]:61–83).

The scale also occurs in central Asia (Example 10-9). Its use in folk music is clearly widespread. Roy Howat names it the “acoustic scale” on the grounds that its pitches approximate the harmonic series (Debussy in Proportion [London, 1983]). With C as a fundamental, the eleventh partial comes halfway between F and F-sharp of the corresponding octave in equal temperament. Even the 23rd partial is 28 cents sharper than the corresponding F-sharp in equal temperament. Because of problems of inharmonicity, the discrepancies between scale and partials can be even greater on the piano. LI. S. Lloyd convincingly demonstrates the futility of deriving scales and harmonies from partials. See The Musical Ear (London, 1940); and Lloyd and Hugh Boyle, Intervals, Scales and Temperaments (London, 1978).

10. Debussy also uses the scale in L’Isle joyeuse. In La fille aux cheveux de lin it takes the form of an alternation between a dominant 7th and a dominant 9th a whole tone apart. Szymanowski uses the scale in his Mazurkas Op. 50; see McNamee, note 9 above.

11. One can see this same resolution of the minor 3rd in Anatoly Aleksandrov; see Example 9-24d, bar 209.

12. Saminsky, who was a pupil of Rimsky-Korsakov at the St. Petersburg Conservatory from 1906 to 1910, wrote: “In my Lehrjahre I, too, applied myself to the search for a universal tonal synthesis and a universal nomenclature. I then invented the names fri-dur and fri-mol for tonalities that admit, with unlimited freedom, any feasible harmony on any step of the scale and yet gravitate to a definite tonic, major-like (fri-dur) or minor-like (fri-mol). Thus I designated my first a symphony in E-fri-mol, and my second a symphony in H-fri-dur.” Saminsky considered the works of Schoenberg to demonstrate a tonal synthesis. He also expressed an interest in the theoretical writings of the French composer Georges Elbert Migot. See Lazare Saminsky, Music of Our Day (New York, 1932 and 1939).

10. Bichords, Bltonallty, and Polymodallty

1. Pieter C. Van den Toorn, The Music of Igor Stravinsky (London, 1982), chapter 2.

2. The bass here is probably a misprint and should appear as G-sharp, as it does when the passage is repeated later. However, this does not affect the principle of the progression.

3. Nikolai Obukhov, Traité d’harmonie tonale, atonale et totale (Paris, 1947).

4. Vincent Persichetti, Twentieth Century Harmony (London, 1962), section on bichords.

5. The neighboring-tone relationship is made clear in the alternation effect discussed earlier in this chapter. In chapter 4 it was pointed out, in connection with Prokofiev, that the dominant triad or 7th may proceed by parallel motion to the augmented 6th on the submediant. Lourié’s bichord combines neighboring-chord technique with the principle of compression.

6. At the end of Example 10-5 each part retains its scale strictly. In the cases discussed in the remainder of this chapter it is a matter of imposing different modal interpretations on the same scale with chromatic inflections.

7. See chapter 7, note 11.

8. Saminsky took part in the Ethnographical Expedition of Baron Horatio de Guinsbourg to collect Hebrew folk songs in Russia, Caucasia, and eastern Europe, and in the activities of the Petrograd Hebrew Folksong Society.

9. Eichhom was a violinist in the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra in Moscow. In the 1860s he moved to Central Asia, where he worked as a military band conductor in Tashkent and carried out pioneer work in collecting Central Asian folk music and examples of folk instruments. He also made a number of transcriptions and arrangements of Central Asian music which show a thorough understanding of the folk idiom.

10. The A often occurs in conjunction with A-flat in such an arrangement of 4ths. Its association with A-flat in places like the treble of bar 4 is merely decorative.

11. In the music reduction an attempt has been made to identify the chords and melodic lines which feature the key pitches of the piece. Where the opening and concluding notes of a line are the important ones, the intervening notes have not been attached to their respective beams. This gives the added flexibility of being able to attach the intervening notes which occasionally seem to have a particular prominence. Quarter-note stems identify important relationships, and curved lines draw attention to tritone intervals. Implied but unsounded pitches are marked by a note in brackets.

11. Constructional Principles

1. A similar form of construction is used in Bartók’s Mikrokosmos Nos. 88 and 144.

2. This formation occurs also in Western music. Examples include: Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande, the fourth movement of his String Quartet, and “Sirènes,” from Nocturnes; Schoenberg’s “Nacht,” from Pierrot Lunaire; and Webern’s Concerto Op. 24.

In Russian music the minor 3rd with either internal or external semitone, in addition to the connection with the octatonic scale, may also have a more direct link with the intonations of folk songs, as Examples xxxv, xxxvi, and xxxvii suggest.

3. The Cs on the bass staff toward the end of cell 6 have a tendency toward B, and the first low D-flat on the following page has a tendency toward C, to which the final C of this cell may be heard as a delayed response.

4. The trill sign at the end of cell 6 seems to indicate that the C may be repeated so long as its tendency toward the tied D-flat continues to be heard. In cell 7 the gravitation moves from D-flat to C, which is clearly heard with the last C (as the D-flat ceases).

12. Sonata Forms

1. For an analysis of this Sonata on the basis of set theory, see James M. Baker, The Music of Skriabin (New Haven and London, 1986).

2. An exception is the bass line of Op. 74 No. 4, mentioned in chapter 2. This passage is unique in Skriabin’s output and is one of many new stylistic developments which appear in the late Preludes. Skriabin’s music occurs in bars 11-25 of his Op. 59 No. 2. While attempting to apply Dernova’s harmonic model to this piece, Guenther analyzes these bars as consisting of dominant-derived vertical harmonic complexes. This takes no note of the linear relationship between F-sharp and A in bars 11-17 or of the distinct feeling of resolution in bar 14. See Roy J. Guenther, in Russian Theoretical Thought in Music, edited by Gordon D. McQuere (Ann Arbor, 1983).

13. Sets and Other Nontonal Techniques

1. Vivian Perlis, “The Futurist Music of Leo Omstein,” paper presented to the American Musicological Society, Chicago, November 1973.

2. F. H. Martens, Leo Omstein: The Man, His Ideas, and His Works (New York, 1918; reissued, New York: Ayer, 1975).

3. Perle states that Skriabin’s Sonata No. 7 was composed using a variable set (Example xxxviii): “The second degree . . . is sometimes raised a semitone, the fourth sometimes lowered a semitone.”

However, a set which is both unordered and variable is not a particularly meaningful concept. The variants have in common the fact that they are all slightly dominant sounding. Demova’s method of analysis is therefore more significant: it acknowledges the continuity of the development of Skriabin’s style and also has the merit of recognizing and being able to account for the tonal implications and tonally derived harmonic coloring that persists in Skriabin’s music to the end. See George Perle, Serial Composition and Atonality (Berkeley and London, 1981), p. 41.

4. Allen Forte suggests a procedure for ordering sets (see The Structure of Atonal Music [New Haven and London, 1973], p. 3).

In Roslavets’s Quasi Prelude the bass note of the first appearance of the set (B-flat) has been taken as the starting point in writing out the set. It is one of the key pitches (along with G, on which the piece ends) and seems to provide a logical basis for comparing later transpositions, as in Example 13-9. As the notes in the set are not ordered, there is no “correct” pitch on which to commence writing out the series and its transpositions; it is the transpositions and the way they are related that are important. The notes used in Example 13-8 are therefore to be considered from the standpoint of their interrelationships and not for their absolute pitch.

5. The procedure here is similar in some respects to Debussy’s use of scales for structural and coloristic purposes. In L’Isle joyeuse it is simpler and correspondingly more effective. See Jim Samson, Music in Transition (London, 1977), pp. 38, 39.

6. Gojowy gives the date of composition of this trio as 1914. But in a letter to the present writer, the publisher, Robert Lienau, states that according to his records the date of composition was 1925. See Detlev Gojowy, “Golyschev,” The New Grove (London, 1981).

14. A Summing Up and an Assessment

1. Stevenson has suggested that Shostakovich’s 8 Preludes Op. 2 have a Lisztian tonal scheme because the eight key centers form two augmented triads and the first and last pieces are related by a tritone. However, the listener is hardly aware of the augmented triad relationship but rather one of alternating steps of major 2nds and 3rds (G, A, F, E-flat, B, D-flat). See Ronald Stevenson, “The Piano Music,” in Shostakovich the Man and His Ideas, edited by C. Norris (London and Boston, 1982).

2. This formula frequently replaces the traditional diatonic cadence in French music of this time: it can be seen in Debussy (G-sharp, D, G—Example xxxix) and in Ravel (A, B-flat, E-flat—Example xl).

3. Lazare Saminsky, Music of Our Day (New York, 1932), p. 9. As early as 1899 Lalo had accused Ravel of carrying the characteristics of Rimsky-Korsakov and Balakirev to excess. See Norman Demuth, Ravel (London, 1947), p. 10.

4. Saminsky (p. 88) speaks of the combined Franco-Russian influence to be found in the works of Bax, Bliss, Goosens, Holst, Vaughan Williams, Griffes, Carpenter, Howard Hanson, Hammond, Sessions, Taylor, Randall Thompson, and Whithorne.

5. Long and short glissandos, shouts, and cries are all found in the more exuberant types of folk song. Belayev pointed out that laments may contain sobs, cries, and other exclamations. Obukhov’s Berceuse of a Blessed, which is a form of lament, uses some of these devices.

6. In spite of his importance to the Modernist movement, in 1905 Rimsky-Korsakov felt himself to be out of sympathy with contemporary developments in music. Writing to his wife, Nadezhda, in July, he said “music is now beginning to enter a new and incomprehensible phase.” He felt that his work as a composer was completed. However, about a year later he was involved with The Golden Cockerel. See Gerald Abraham, Rimsky-Korsakov (London, 1945).

7. Stravinsky was aware of the problem. He remarked to Robert Craft: “the year 1909 means ‘atonality’ and ‘atonality’ did create a hiatus which Marxists attempt to explain as a problem of social pressures when in fact it was an irresistible pull within the art.” However, his works show little sense of tonal crisis. From The Firebird on, he exploited a tension between diatonic factors and the symmetry of the octatonic scale. See Pieter C. Van den Toorn, The Music of Igor Stravinsky (New Haven, 1983).

8. Leonid Sabaneyev, Modem Russian Composers (London, 1975).

9. Roslavets had a musically active life at Tashkent in Uzbekistan after 1931. In 1933 he returned to Moscow and worked as a producer for the All-Union Radio Committee, and from 1936 to 1939 he was a director of the All-Russian Concert Association. He taught at the Musical Polytechnic and in the Military Band Director’s Course. He continued to compose, but these works and a treatise on harmony and counterpoint were not published. See M. M. Yakovlev, “Roslavets,” MuzykaPnaia entsiklopediia [Soviet encyclopedia of music] (Moscow, 1978).

10. In 1920 Ornstein retired from his concert career and accepted a post as head of the Piano Department at the Philadelphia Academy of Music. Later he established the Ornstein School of Music in Philadelphia. See Vivian Perlis, “The Futurist Music of Leo Omstein,” paper presented at the American Musicological Society, Chicago, November 1973.

In an article on Stravinsky, Schoenberg, and Ornstein, Frank Waldo wrote: “Leo Ornstein, the youngest of these, gives promise to be the greatest” (“Leo Ornstein and the Emancipated Music,” The Onlooker, 1916).

11. A few of Obukhov’s works were performed in 1915 in a concert promoted by the publishers of the journal Muzykal’nyi sovremennik [The musical contemporary]. In 1916 the same publishers arranged a demonstration, in St. Petersburg, of Obukhov’s method of notation. It has no flats, and sharps are indicated by a cross in place of the usual round note head. It is similar to the notation adopted by Golyshchev, except that Golyshchev placed the cross in an open note head even in the case of eighth and sixteenth notes, an ambiguous practice. Honegger and a few other composers occasionally used Obukhov’s system, and Durand published a collection of works in this notation. Some Russians, including Sabaneyev, believed the system was based on an ancient Russian notation, but this has not been proven.

12. In 1963 Henry Cowell stated: “Up to 1920 there were five composers in the United States who did not resolve dissonances—that is, not always—the first of these was probably Charles Ives. I was the second. My teacher, Charles Seeger, was the third and Leo Ornstein, then very famous, was the fourth. Carl Ruggles was the fifth.” See “Reminiscences of Henry Cowell,” Oral History Collection of Columbia University, 1963.

13. The archives of Universal Edition in Vienna and Hans Sikorski of Hamburg continue to be among the best sources for scores of this period, together with the Staatsbibliothek Preussische Kulturbesitz, West Berlin.

14. Olivier Messiaen, The Technique of My Musical Language (London and Paris, 1956).

15. An example from a later period is the opening of Symphony No. 5 by Shostakovich (1937), which uses the octatonic scale and other aspects of symmetry. See Paul Cooper, Perspectives in Music Theory: An Historical-Analytical Approach (New York and London: Harper and Row, 1981).

16. Another early example of a twelve-tone chord is the one which opens No. 3 of Berg’s Altenberg Songs Op. 4 (1912). The theme of the first song is possibly the earliest example of an ordered twelve-tone series; it returns as one of the three subjects of the Passacaglia which forms the fourth song.

17. Obukhov was also an inventor of electronic instruments, which he called “Crystal,” “Ether,” and “Croix sonore.” The last was used in many of his works and was exhibited in 1934.

18. Igor Stravinsky, Poetics of Music (London, 1960), pp. 101-102.

19. Boris Schwarz, Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia, 1917-1981 (Bloomington, IN, 1983).

20. It is still too early to know what effect, if any, the policy of “glasnost” has had on music in Russia. As early as 1981 a thesis by A. Puchina was accepted at the Moscow Conservatory with the title “Kontsert dlia skripki s orkestrom N. Roslavtsa i ego mesto v tvorcheskom nesledii kompozitora” [The concerto for violin and orchestra by N. Roslavets and its place in the composer’s compositional legacy].

Piano pieces by Deshevov, Mosolov, and Roslavets have been reprinted in Proizvedeniia sovetskikh kompozitorov [Works of Russian composers], edited by V. Alekseeva (Moscow, 1981); and an entry on Roslavets appeared in the new MuzykaPnaia entsiklopediia (Moscow, 1978).

21. A major work on Russian architecture of the 1920s has recently been completed by Selim Khan-Magomedov, Head of Technical Aesthetics at the Research Institute of Moscow University. It is issued in English as Pioneers of Soviet Architecture: The Search for New Solutions, edited by Catherine Cook (London, 1987).

Another important work has appeared on the subject of the Soviet theatre, covering the period from the turn of the century to 1930: Konstantin Rudnitsky, Russian and Soviet Theatre: Tradition and the Avant-Garde, translated by Roxane Permar, edited by Lesley Milne (London, 1988).

22. There have been limited performances of Russian Modernist works in recent times. In March 1979, in a music festival in Cologne sponsored by West German Radio, works by Mosolov, Lourié, Shillinger, B. Aleksandrov, Roslavets, and Deshevov were performed. In the Holland Festival 1979, the pianist Geoffrey Douglas Madge performed works by Roslavets, Mosolov, Lourié, and Shostakovich. Roslavets’s Violin Sonata and Ornstein’s Chinatown have been broadcast by the BBC. In April 1991 there was a Russian Festival at the South Bank Concert Halls, London; works by Roslavets, Mosolov, Protopopov, and Prokofiev were included, and the BBC broadcast the Roslavets Violin Concerto.