Index

Abercrombie, ix, 30

Abkhazian, 68-70

Abrahamson. See Lisker and

Accumulation of marks, 15, 16, 17. See also Positive Specifications

Acoustic, 10, 24

Acquisition, 17, 18

[Acute], 51

Adequacy, 5; descriptive, 7, 8, 9, 22, 46, 47, 64; explanatory, 7, 8, 9, 22, 47, 64; observational, 7, 8, 9, 22, 28, 46, 47, 67; specificatory, 67-106

Affricates, 18, 24, 28, 36, 97, 109; nasal, 24; prenasalized, 47; slit, 83; lateral, 83

Afrikaans, 68, 71-72

Air Stream: egressive, 24, 59, 60, 92; features, 8, 52; glottalic, 17, 31, 32, 74, 88; ingressive, 32, 92; initiators, 31, 33; occlusives, 30; properties of stops and nasals, 27-8; pulmonic, 17, 27, 31, 32, 37; and [surd], 31; velaric, 17, 23, 31, 32, 38

Alabaman, 68, 72-73

Alarcos Llorach, 20

Aleut, 73-4; no need for [contoid], 73

Allomorphs, 4

Allophones, 56

Alveolar, 23; apico-, 41

Amharic, 36, 68, 74-5

Analogic, 11

Andersen, x

Anderson, ix, 8, 24, 25, 26, 29, 37, 47

Andoa, 20, 68, 76

[Anterior], 22, 23, 40, 41, 103

Approximant(s), 6, 28, 30, 31, 35, 55

Approximation, 18, 31, 37

Arabic: Egyptian, 44, 68, 77-9; Iraqui, 44

Arbitrary, 11

Articulation, 3, 4; allophonic, 13; alveolar, 23; consonantal, 27, 28, 51; cotoidal, 30, 69, 71, 97; fortis, 35, 36, 37; fricatives, 39; manner of, 24, 29, 36, 39, 40; oral, 28; point of, 14, 18, 27, 28, 30, 31, 37, 39, 53, 56, 60, 71, 92; palatal fricatives, 101; primary, 30; secondary, 28, 30

Articulatory, 27; affinities, 28; apparatus, 4, 10, 20; base of phonology, 4, 7; complexity, 36; correlates of strength, 59; definitions of D.F.’s, 118-119; differences, 27; D.F. inventory, 11, 40; gestures, 11, 49, 59, 67, 73; labels, 3; limitations, 7; motivation, 3; origins of phonology, 1-9, 59; potential, 60; primes, 56; reality, 8, 9; simplicity and markedness, 17; strength, 40

Aspiration, 13, 37, 38

Assimilation, 4; nasal, 27; progressive and regressive, 14; rounding, 36

Babble, 11

[Back], 40

Backdrop, 36. See also [Voice]

Bagirmi, 50

Ballistic, 23

Baltaxe, 11

Barnwell, 55

Baule, 41, 42

Beni, 55

Berry, 55

Binarity, 8, 20; abrogation of, 54-5

Binding Strength, 59

Bini, 68, 79-81

Blockage, 24, 25

Boundaries, 31

Brain, 4, 10

Brakel, 3, 20, 65

Buang, 68, 81-2

Campbell, ix, 8, 25, 37

Cantonese, 48

Celtic, 26

Catford, ix, x, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 47, 48

Change: feature, 28; linguistic, 18; sound, 19, 26

[Checked], 50

Cherokee, 68, 82-3

Chicago Linguistic Society, 65

Chipewyen, 68, 83-4

Chomsky and Halle, ix, 2, 6, 7, 10, 14, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 30, 31, 40, 109

Clicks, 32, 38, 60, 90-1, 93-5

Comanche, 50

Communication, 10, 11, 12, 30, 39, 49, 55, 60

[Compact], 51; equals [low], 54; non-, 51, 63, 64

Complexity, 69, 109; and markedness, 15-6, 17, 19; of phonological system, 67, 69, 74, 85, 88, 90, 93, 104; of syllable, 32

[Consonant](al), 4, 6, 18, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 37, 50, 103; alveolar, 23, 41; cluster, 58; complimentary distribution, 14; contrast, 18; flap, 22; frequency, 20; intervocalic, 14; lenition, 23, 26; marked, 6; nasal, 4, 14, 22, 24-31; Portuguese, 14, 22-3, 28; specification of 22, 29; stops, 4, 14, 24, 26-8; strong, 58; [surd], 14, 26; syllable-final, 22-3, 28; [voiced], 14, 26; vs vowel, 50; weak, 58

[Continuant], 10, 36, 40, 50; inadequacy of, 7, 22-9

Content, 8, 10

[Contoid], 12, 20, 33, 34, 35, 37, 44, 45, 69, 77, 79, 80, 97; Abkhazian, 69; alveolar, 41, 69; approximants, 31; articulation, 32, 35; complex, 36-7; dental, 68-9; dispensability of feature, 73, 77, 79, 80; fricatives, 26, 28; labial and velar, 42; highly marked, 12-3; least marked, 12-13, 19; long and non-long, 74; nasal, 18; palatal, 41, 97; pharyngealized, 43, 77; Portuguese, 6, 12; syllable-final, 6, 34, 58;[r], 45;and vocoid, 17, 19, 41, 45; weakening, 6, 7

Contrast(s), 5, 58; consonantal, 18; lax vowels and glides, 35; length, 96; nasal and non-nasal, 17, 27; neutralization, 12, 13; points of articulation, 40-1, 44, 92; /r/ and /r̃/, 13; reduction of, 58; stops, 13, 40; [+syllabic], 31, 35; vocoid and [contoid], 17; vowels, 41

[Coronal], 40, 103; contoids, 22-3; inadequacy of, 41;

[Covered], 40, 43, 44

Creak, 38, 49

Crying, 11

Culture, 10, 11

Daju, 68, 85-6

[Delayed Release], inadequacy of, 36

[Delayed Transition], 28, 36-7, 41, 45, 52, 77, 80, 88, 96, 97; primary and secondary, 29, 30

Deletion of Strong Segments, 58

Dental, 26

Dialectic, 18

Diametrical, 18, 20

[diffuse], 51

Digital, 11

Diphthong(s), 36

Disjunction(s), 6, 23, 25, 27; appropriateness of, 27; indication of inadequate features, 23; in rules, 6, 23, 25, 26, 27

D.F. Inventories: theories of speech sounds, 49; generative capacity, 49; comparability, 44; descriptive and explanatory adequacy of, 49

[Distributed], 40, 69, 83, 103

[Dorsal], 18, 41, 44, 45, 63, 69, 79, 80, 97

Dyribal, 20, 39, 68, 86-7

Ear, 10

Economy, 19

Egressive Air Stream, 18, 23; glottalic, 32, 38; greater volume, 37; impedence of, 24, 27; pulmonic, 17; and syllables, 32; unmarked, 59; velaric, 32, 38

Ejectives, 32

English, 20; American, 13, 37, 41; low vowels, 49; speakers, 48; stops, 13

Etskato, 55

Ewe, 39, 55

Exclusion and. Markedness, 15

Extended Standard Theory, 2

Fant. See Jakobson, Fant, and Halle

Feminine, 15, 16

Fe? Fe?, 43

Finnish, 25

Flap, 45; [+consonantal, +continuant], 28; [+contoid], 45, 53; least-marked contoid, 53; [-occlusion], 23; Portuguese, 13, 22; syllable-final, 22; and trill, 13, 27

[Flat], 51, 63, 64; equals [round], 51

Foley, 3, 8, 58, 65

Formant, 51

Frequency: alveolar consonants, 41; low, 15, 16, 17; laryngeal vibration, 37; segmental counts of, 15, 17, 64

[Friction], 29, 36, 39-40, 63, 69, 77, 97; and approximants, 31; contoidal, 30

Fricative(s), 55; endolabial nasal, 47; groove, 39, 41; Portuguese, 33; [], 53; in segmental ontogeny, 18; [+slit], 33, 39-40, 41; spirantization, 25; strength, 62, 63, 64; trill, 45; voiced, 58; voiceless, 15, 62, 63, 64, 65

Fudge, 55

Future, 16

Gadsup, 20, 30, 68, 87-88

Gbeyan, 68, 88-89

Geminates, 36

Gender, 15, 16

Generative: capacity, 8, 49, 55; linguists, 1; model, 2; phonology, ix, 4, passim; power, 8, 56

Generality, ix

German, 4

Glides, 50; strength of, 57, 62, 63, 64

Glottal, 37; [glottal constriction], 37-8, 40, 41, 44, 77, 88; widening, 37-8

Glottalization, 13, 37, 38

[Glottalic], 52, 59

Goldsmith, x

Grammar, 1, 2; phonological, 13; phonology in, 2; universal, 2, 8

Grammatical: categories, 3; elements, 4; gender, 16; models, 1, 2; person, 17

[Grave], 42, 51, 63, 64

Greenberg, 12, 14, 15, 17, 20

Gulla, 50

Halle, See Chomsky and

Harris, ix, 39, 47, 103

Hasselbrink, 106

Hebrew, 15

[Heightened Subglottalic Pressure], 40, 104

Hierarchy, sonority and strength, 32, 57-65

[High], 18, 22, 31, 34, 35, 36, 40 45 passim, 63, 87, 96, 97, 103; non universality of, 72, 79, 80

Hill, x, 27, 47

Hindi, 40

Historical, 10, 16

History, 3

Hockett, ix

Homorganic, 18

Hooper, 57-60 passim, 64

Hypothesis(es): binary, criticism of, 20; comparability of, 7; D.F. inventory as, 5; strengthening of, 28-9, 30, 38-9; vowel height, 37

Iberian Romance, 58

Icelandic, 59

Ijo, 59

Impedence, 25, 30, 59

Impediments, 60

Implication, 15, 17, 19

Implosives, 32

Inflection, 4

Interpretation: articulatory gestures, iii; by grammar, 11; by principles of markedness, 10-20; of complex segments, 36

[Interrupted], 24, 50, 53

Intervocalic: contrast of /r/ and /r̃/, 13, 14; English stops, 14, 20; Germanic stops, 14; voiced stops, 6

Invariance Principle, 4

Irregularity and Markedness, 15-16

Italian, 14

Ivory Coast, 41-2

Jakobson, ix, 7, 11, 17, 18, 43;____Fant, and Halle, 24, 42, 49-55 passim, 63; ____ and Waugh, 7, 43, 44, 49-55 passim

Jukun, 27

Kaisse, x

Kert, 96

Kim, 38

Kisseberth and Kenstowicz, 3

!Kõ, 68, 90-1, 109

Koalib, 68, 92-3

Korean, 38, 40

Kuipers, 8, 11

Kung, 68, 93-5, 109

[Labial](ity), 18, 69, 79, 80, 97; complex segments, 36-7; contoidal and non-contoidal, 45, 55, 59; in ontogeny, 18; redundant, 20; equals [round], 40, 41; vs [grave], 42

Ladefoged, ix, 8, 22, 24, 36, 39, 47

Language: definition, 10; -specific, 13

Lapp, 67, 68, 69, 96-9, 106, 109

Laryngeal: activity, 29; control, 8; creak, 38, 47; impedence, 55; resonance, 4, 8, 11; vibration, 31, 37, 39

Larynx, 16

Lass, 37, 47

[Lateral](s), 6, 9, 15, 28, 33, 45, 53; aero-dynamic properties, 18-19; contoidal properties, 30, 53; emergence of, 18; fricatives, 53; non-universality of, 100; and r sounds, 52-3; equals [vocalic], 63

Laver, 55

Lax, 40; vowels, 37, and glides, 35-6, lengthening of, 49

Lenis, 35

Lenition: Celtic consonants, 26; inadequacy of [+tense], 37; voiced consonants, 23

Lexemes, 12

Lexicon, 2

lip(s), 10; lower, 5; rounding, 16

Linguistic: perception, 49; production, 49 Liquid(s), 28, 31, 50, 52-3; strength of, 57, 62, 63, 64

Lisker and Abrahamson, 8, 40

[Long], 36

[Low], 20, 41

Lungs, 10

Mark(ed)(ness), 10-20 passim; Chomsky-Halle approach, 8; conditional, 7; consonantal, 41, 46; double, 69, 80, 88, 97; of glides, 36; equals less frequent, 12, 15; nasal stop, 30; negative specification, 6; positive specification, 6, 7, 12, 13, 19, 24, 28, 30, 36-39 passim, 41, 45; rounding as, 16; voicelessness as, 39

Mattoso Câmara, 1

Mowrey, See Pagliuca and

Mayan Chontal, 50

Mbembe, 55

Meaning, 11

Methuen, x

Mira Mateus, 8, 22

Mirror Image: phonological development and decay, 17; rule, 34

Morpheme, 2; boundaries, 3, 4

Morphology, 2, 16

Mura, 68, 100

Naro, 73

[Nasal], 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 33, 34, 39, 88, 97; non-universal, 100

Nasal Consonants, 1-5, 6, 9, 31; fricatives, 26, 28, 47; membership in natural class, 6; not stops, 24-8; occlusives, 27, 29-30, 36; strength, 57, 62, 63, 64

Nasality, Synthesis of [+contoid +vocoid], 18

Nasalization: pre-, post-, meso-, 29; meso-, 49

Natural Class: inadequacies, 8; inadequacy of [continuant], 6, 22-29; stops and nasals in, 26

Natural(ness): notions from Chomsky and Halle, 10; order, 30; voice, 38, 39; of voiceless stops, 14

Neutral(ization), 19; of nasal consonants, 4-5; of /r/ and /r̃/ in Portuguese, 13, 14; of /t/ and /d/ in American English, 14; of voicing, 4, 14-15; equals unmarked feature, 12-14; in weak position, 58

Non[diffuse], 63, 64

Non-Universality of D.F.’s, 67, 107-8

Norwegian, 68, 101-2

Nose, 30

Nostrils, 10

Nunggubuyu, 20, 39, 68, 102-3

Occlusive(s), 69, 77, 79, 80; aspirated voiced and voiceless, 104; Germanic, Slavic, 14; English, 14, 20; non-occlusives, 31-2; pharyngealized, 44; Portuguese, 9

[Occlusion], 6, 7, 13, 18, 22-30, 33, 34, 36, 40, 47, 69, 77, 79, 80; non-universality, 82, 88, 97

[obstruent], 24

Opposition, 18

Oral: closure, 18, 24-9; pressure, 37

Organs of Speech, 4

Pagliuca and Mowrey, 41-43

Pali-Sanskrit, 59

[Palatal], 35, 41, 44, 45, 65; non-universality, 87, 96, 97

Palatalization, 36, 37, 80, 96-7; half, 96-7; of palatals, 69

Palate, 51

Pharyngeal(s), 41, 43, 65, 77; approximants, 48; perceived as labials, 44; stop, 48; timbre, 44, 80

Pharynx as Pre-oral Lips, 44

Phonation, 38

Phoneme(s), 12, 19; allophonic variation, 13, 14, 20, 36; backdrop, 19; complimentary distribution, 14; invariance principle, 4; marked and unmarked, 12; nasal, 4; unit of analysis, 4

Phonemic: frequency, 15, 16; neutralization, 14; sequences in Portuguese, 33; status of glides, 31-35; systems with no voiceless phonemes, 39; transcription, 59

Phonological: component, 2; space, 12; system complexity, 46

Phonetic: accuracy, 26; complexity, 36, 38; key, 120-122; motivation, 3; parameters, 5, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30; reduction 3; reductionism, 59

Pike, ix, 30

Pitch, 65

Plural, 17

Polish, 14

Portmanteau, 16

Portuguese: contoidal weakening, 6-7; glides, 47; labial fricatives, 55; liquids, 53; marked gender, 15, 16; occlusives, 9, 53, 56; phonological system, 22; /r/, 12, 13, 14; /r̃/, 14; /š/, 12-3; specification of segments, 6, 22-3; syllable division, 31-5; syllable-final segments, 6, 20, 22-3; vocoids, 53; vocoidal lenition, 37

Positive Specification: equals a mark, 10-20; 67-8, 109; reflects segmental strength, 60, 62-65

Post, x

Power: curve, 31; generative, 46, 78

Preglottalization, 88

Prenasalization, 81, 85, 88

Pressure: subglottal, 32, 49; supraglottal, 37-9) passim

Prosodic Features, 52

Pulgram, x, 31

[Raised], 18, 30, 41, 45, 53, 55, 63, 69, 77, 83, 96

Raising, 16

Reduplication, 43

Resonance Chamber, 59

Retroflex, 30, 31; contoids, 41

Rhodes, x

Roman Alphabet, 45

Romance: gender: 15; language, 22; tense and aspect, 6

[Round], 40

Ruhlen, 47, 67, 93

Rule(s): delateralization, 43; description of natural class, 6, 23; lack of, 16-7; nasalization, 27; regressive assimilation, 5; spirantization 26; syllabation, 31-5; vocalic assimilation, 42, 43; weakening, 7, 26

Scatton, 106

Segments as Artifacts, 59

Semiotic, 10-20; foundations of SPE, 8; interpretation of stops, 24; value of SPE D.F.’s, 22

Sequences, 59; equal long segments, 106

[Sharp], 51

Sibilants, 20

Singular, 17

[Slit], 39-40

[Sonorant], 8, 23-9 passim, 31, 39, 40, 103

Spanish, 59; consonants, 40; contoidal weakening, 6-7; nasal, 14; /r/, 47; register and contrasts, 58; stops, 6-7, 13, 40; syllable, 58; verbal aspect, 16

Speech Pathology, 17, 18

Spirantization, 25, 26; propensity, 58

Stop(s), 18, 24; alveolar, 36, 44; coarticulated, 79-80, 88; [-continuant], 24; contrast at 6 points of articulation, 102-3; English, 13, 14; [+interrupted], 24, 50; geminate voiceless, 58; glottal, 29; and nasals, 24-8; pharyngealized, 44; Polish, 14; Portuguese, 13; Spanish, 13; stem-final, 4; strength of, 57-64 passim; strong unaspirated, 38; and the syllable, 32; uvular, 69; voiced aspirated, 40; voiced and voiceless, 4, 13, 14-5, 38, 60; word-final, 4. See also, Occlusive(s) and [Occlusion]

Strength of Segments: def. 59; heirarchy, 55, 57-65 passim; linguists’ intuitions about, 57, 63, 64; non-phonetic concept, 62; phonetic nature of, 57-8; shortcomings of hierarchy, 59

Stress, 65

Stridency, 53

[Strident], 50-1, 55, 64

Structuralism: American, ix, 4; Praguean, ix, 4, 11, 13

[Suction], 52, 60

Sufficiency, 7, 59

Suffix, 16

Suprasegmental, 106

[Surd], 13, 15, 38, 40, 63, 77, 86, 87; is marked quality, 19, 39, 60; non-universality of, 20, 86, 107

Syllabation: Portuguese, 33-5, 47

[Syllabic], 8, 31, 32, 34

Syllable, 31-6, 57; coda(s), 22-3; -final segments (Portuguese), 6, 13, 20, 22-3; 28; reduplication, 43; and segmental distribution, 57; strong position in, 57; vowels and non-vowels, 57; weak position in, 58

Symbolic, 11

Syntactic Patterns, 3

[Tense](ness), 18, 20, 40, 51, 63, 64; and [lax], 37; replaced by [widened glottis], 37-8

Teso, 50

Theory: D.F. inventory is a, 5-7; elegance, 62-3; of markedness, 8, 10, 20; phonetic, 27; phonological, 3, 41; psychological, 3; strong ____, 11, 17, 21, 22, 24

Timbre, 44, 106; labial, 69, palatal, 69, 96-7; pharyngeal, 44, 80; velar, 80, 97

Tone, 47

Tonemes, 48

Tongue: as articulator, 5, 18, 23, 30; back, 40, 69; blade, 16, 45; front, 69; and palatalization, 106; position, 37, 39; unnecessary for speech, 49

transition, 36

Trill(s), 27, 47

Trubetzkoy, ix, 13, 14

Turbulence, 39

Twi, 24

Umlaut, 42, 43

Universal: articulatory tract, 4-5; D.F. inventory, 5, 22; essence of syllables, 32; grammar, 8; linguistic, 1; segmental ontogenesis, 17-9; equals unmarked, 19; strength hierarchy, 59; vocal tract, 59

Unmarked, 10-20 passim; combinations, 30; negative specification of, 6; preponderance of, 12, 41

Unrounded, 20

Urdu, 68, 104-5

Uvular, 69, 81

Vago, 42

Velar(s), 40, 52; labialized, 80

Velarization, 36

Velic, 36

Velum, 5, 27

Verb, 25

Vibrant, 6, 100

Vibration, 31, 38, 51

Vocal Bands, 5, 14, 37

[Vocalic], 8, 18, 29, 30, 31, 53, 64, 103; formants, 50; syllabic nuclei, 53

Vocalization, 59, 65

Vocal Tract, 30, 31, 36, 38; human universal, 59

Vocoid(s), 15, 64; approximants, 31; articulation, 36, 41; central, 20, 54; and contoids, 17, 19, 30; differentiation, 18, 53-5; lax, 35, 53; more marked, 19; nasal, 27; pharyngealized, 43; nonsyllabic, 35-6; not essential to syllables, 37; strength of, 62-4, passim; unmarked segments, 30

[Voice](d), 23, 50, 51, 59, 60, 63 , 64; creaky, 38; stops, 4, 13, 14, 20, 26; unmarked quality, 19, 28, 37, 39

Voiceless(ness), 15; equals marked, 39, 48; stops, 4, 13, 14, 20, 26, 38; syllable, 32; strength, 57; and [widened glottis], 37, 40

Vowel: central, 41; [compact], 51; counts, 20; description, 23; front, 41, 42; front rounded, 19; harmonic source, 50 harmony, 14; height, 37; [+high], 54, 59; high front, 36; high mid, 54-5; lax, 37, 49; [+low], 59; [+nasal], 19, 36; pressed, 93, 95; qualities, 24; retroflex, 30; strength, 59; [+sonorant], 28; nonsyllabic, 50; not essential to syllable, 32; syllable boundaries, 34-5; syllable peak, 31, 50; system, 18; [+tense], 37, 49; tract, 22; and vocoid, 30; voiceless, 50

Walton, x

Wang, 41, 42

Waugh, See Jakobson and

Weakening, 6, 7, 26; of the D.F. hypothesis, 47

Wescott, 55

Wheeler, 24

[Widened Glottis], 35, 37, 38, 40, 45, 49, 63