Figures

1.1 Variables in Human Linguistic Communication

2.1 Levels and Sample Forms of Representation

2.2 Filters between Experience and Language

2.3 S.B.’s Drawings of a Bus after Regaining Sight at Age

2.4 Eskimo or Indian?—The Winson Figure

2.5 Optical Illusion Resulting from Perspectival Drawing

2.6 The Müller-Lyer Illusion

2.7 Map of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia

2.8 Schematic Representation of Gilbert Islands Stone Chart

2.9 The Concept of Etak or “Reference Island” in the Caroline Islands, Micronesia

2.10 Bishop Wilkins’s Forty Genuses, Grouped into Predicaments

2.11 Bishop Wilkins’s Nine Indicators of Difference

2.12 Bishop Wilkins’s Nine Indicators of Species

2.13 Example of Difference and Species Subdivisions of a Genus

2.14 Tree of Porphyry

2.15 Adaptation of the Tree of Porphyry to Katz’s Semantic Features

2.16 Katz’s Semantic Entry for Bachelor

2.17 Modified Tree of Porphyry for the Entry Bachelor

3.1 Hockett’s Thirteen Design Features of Animal Communication

3.2 Distribution of Design Features among Eight Systems of Communication

3.3 The Linguistic Representation of Experience

4.1 Typology of Linguistic Change

5.1 Partial Genetic Classification of Indo-European Languages

5.2 Drawing by S. Harris

5.3 Drawing by Dana Fradon

6.1 Horse Surrounded by Arrows, Lascaux Caves, France

6.2 Bison Attacked by Hunters, Dharampuri, India

6.3 Man Attacking Buffalo, Concho County, Texas

6.4 Nilgai Antelope Pregnant with an Elephant, Hathi Tol Shelter, Raisen, India

6.5 Comparison of Motifs in Indian Shelter Painting and Pottery

6.6 Piero della Francesca, “Legend of the True Cross,” Church of San Francesco, Arezzo, Italy. Plan of the Fresco

6.7 Panels from Top Left-hand Side of “Legend of the True Cross” (VIII, IX, XI)

6.8 Hill Pierced with Arrow Standing for Place Militarily Attacked. Codex Nuttall,

6.9 Place Sign of Coixtlahuaca (Mixtec Yadzo Coo). 1580 Map of Ixcadan

6.10 Symbols for Vowels and Consonants in the Ogham Script

6.11 Example of Ogham Inscription

6.12 West African Symbol Messages (Oroko)

6.13 Examples of Signs Taught to Sarah the Chimpanzee

6.14 Sample Lexigrams from Yerkish

6.15 Lone Dog’s Winter Count

6.16 Roman-Nose. Red-Cloud’s Census

6.17 Spotted-Face. Red-Cloud’s Census

6.18 Stabber. Red-Cloud’s Census

6.19 Spotted-Elk. Red-Cloud’s Census

6.20 Red-Shirt. Red-Cloud’s Census

6.21 Takes-the-Gun. Red-Cloud’s Census

6.22 The Twenty Day Signs in Mixtec and Valley of Mexico

6.23 8-Deer. Codex Nuttall,

6.24 10-Rabbit. Codex Nuttall,

6.25 5-Rain Smoking Mountain. Codex Nuttall, p.56b

6.26 5-Rain Smoking Mountain. Codex Becker I, p.6

6.27 Many-Deer. American-Horse’s Winter Count

6.28 Place Sign: Tochpan. Codex Mendoza, fol. 52r

6.29 Place Sign: Tzompanhuacan. Codex Mendoza, fol. 35r

6.30 Householder Andrés Oyohuatl. Códice de Santa María Asunción, No. 316

6.31 Householder Antonio Oyohual. Códice de Santa Maria Asuncion, No. 159

6.32 Householder Antonio Oyohual. Códice de Santa Maria Asunción, No. 82

7.1 Sign for “Tree” in Three Sign Languages

7.2 American Sign Language Sign for “King”

7.3 American Sign Language Sign for “Queen”

7.4 Components of the Formal American Sign Language Sign for “Home”

7.5 Abbreviated, Informal American Sign Language Sign for “Home”

7.6 Genetic Classification of Sign Languages: The French Branch

7.7 Stokoe Classification of Sign Languages

7.8 Simplified Classification of Sign Language Types

7.9 Distribution of American Plains Indian Sign Language

7.10 The (Pantomimic) Sign for “Sleep” in Cistercian Sign Language

7.11 The (Pure) Sign for “Abbot” in Cistercian Sign Language

7.12 The (Qualitative) Sign for “Irish” (= “Potato” + “Eat”) in Cistercian Sign Language

7.13 The (Derived) Sign for “Cookie” (= “Cook” + “Key”) in Cistercian Sign Language

7.14 Sample Signs Used in Iconicity Experiment with Mentally Retarded Children

7.15 Sample Pictures Used in Iconicity Experiment with Mentally Retarded Children