NOTES

Introduction

1. Historically the tendency to equate Leninism and Bolshevism dates from the 1917 revolution. The official Soviet view is that Lenin was an infallibly correct leader from whom the other Bolsheviks deviated on matters of politics and philosophy. A detailed study of the entire Lenin cult and its implications for historical writing is Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983).

As early as 1939 the Trotskyist Boris Souvarine wrote that “without Lenin there would have been no Bolshevism. Not that his section had never attracted eminent men, but the Bogdanovs and Krasins were in turn to detach themselves from it as Trotsky and Plekhanov had done in the past, leaving Lenin with comrades incapable of meeting an unforeseen situation unaided.” See Boris Souvarine, Stalin, trans. C. L. R. James (New York: Alliance, 1939), 77.

The view that Leninism and Bolshevism were virtually identical has persisted in Western historiography as well. For example, Leonard Schapiro in The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York: Random House, 1960), 58, describes the Bolshevism of 1904 as a “one-man party” with Lenin at the head of a “disciplined network of followers.” More recently the German historian Dietrich Grille noted that “the concentration of attention on the person of Lenin has made all other leaders of Russian social democracy appear as insignificant party details.” See Dietrich Grille, Lenins Rivale: Bogdanow und Seine Philosophie (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1966), 25.

2. From 1903 on, the Mensheviks assumed that Lenin had significantly more control over the other Bolsheviks than was the case. Paul Axelrod in 1904 portrayed Bolshevism as a dictatorial one-man party of Lenin’s with “Jacobin” characteristics, and the portrait has survived in works such as Fedor Dan’s The Origins of Bolshevism (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), which devotes no attention to other Bolsheviks, including Bogdanov, Lunacharsky, Bonch-Bruevich, and Krasin. Dan also omits the 1906–1914 period when intraBolshevik divisions were deepest.

3. The Russian tradition of collectivism has been analyzed by George Kline, an American scholar, in “Changing Attitudes toward Individuals,” in C. E. Black, ed., The Transformation of Russian Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 606–624; “Theoretische Ethik im russischen Fruhmarxismus,” Forschungen zur Osteuropaischen Geschichte 9 (1963): 269–279; “Nietzschean Marxism in Russia,” Boston College Studies in Philosophy, vol. 2 (1968); and his monograph Religious and Antireligious Thought in Russia (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1968), especially pp. 103–126. Kline tends to overrate the influence of Nietzsche on the other Bolsheviks, and to underestimate the role of politics and European thought in shaping Bolshevik collectivism. For a treatment of Bogdanov’s thought as a “blend of Marxism and Neopositivism,” see Alexander Vucinich, Social Thought in Tsarist Russia: The Quest for a General Science of Society, 1861–1917 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 206–230.

4. The most comprehensive history of the Jacobin and authoritarian-conspiratorial roots of Bolshevism is by Astrid von Borcke, Die Ursprung des Bolschewismus: Die Jakobinische Tradition in Russland und die Theorie der Revolutionaren Diktatur (Munich: Berchmans Verlag, 1977).

For an early attempt to comment on Lenin’s opposition to the syndicalist movement, see Solomon Schwarz, Lenine et le mouvement syndical (Paris, n.d.), which traces Lenin’s critical writings on the trade unions but contains little on the 1907–1910 period. Lenin’s writings have been collected as Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism (New York: International Publishers, 1972).

John Keep’s The Rise of Social Democracy in Russia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963) makes only passing mention of syndicalism (pp. 61, 63, 178, 279). Robert V. Daniels in The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960) notes the “dualistic character of the communist movement” (p. 5) with its divisions between “left” and “right” Bolshevism (p. 13) but contains very little on the influence of syndicalism on Bolshevism during 1905–1917; his recognition of the “utopian anarchism” of Lenin’s pamphlet State and Revolution (p. 52) and the “syndicalist legacy of 1917 Bolshevism” (p. 119) is not developed in any systematic or detailed fashion.

For more recent investigations into the relationship between Bolshevism and syndicalism, see A. Tamborra, Esuli Russi in Italia dal 1905 al 1917 (Rome and Bari: Laterza, 1977), chapter 17, and Robert C. Williams, “Collective Immortality: The Syndicalist Origins of Proletarian Culture, 1904—1910,” Slavic Review 39, no. 3 (September 1980): 389–402.

It has also been pointed out that after 1917 the Bolsheviks “took over” the revolutionary thrust of anarchism and syndicalism and redirected them through the Comintern. See W. Kendall, “Comintern—60 Years After: Reflections on the Anniversary,” Survey 24, no. 1 (Winter 1979): 145–156.

5. On god building, see Jutta Scherrer, “La crise de l’intelligentsia Marxiste avant 1914: A. V. Lunacarskij et le bogostroitel’stvo,” Revue des etudes slaves 51, nos. 1–2 (1978): 207–215; idem., ‘“Ein gelber und ein blauer Teufel’: Zur Entstehung der Begriffe ‘bogostroitel’stvo’ und ‘bogoiskatel’stvo,”‘ Forschungen zur osteuropaischen Geschichte 25 (1978): 319–330; and Kendall E. Bailes, “Sur la ‘theorie des Valeurs’ de A. V. Lunacarskij,” Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique 8, no. 2 (April-June 1967): 223–443.

In the Soviet view god building is a petty bourgeois reactionary philosophical tendency before 1914 that was anti-Marxist; see Institut Filosofii, Akademiia Nauk, eds., Filosofskaia Entsiklopediia (Moscow, 1960), 1:179. According to one Soviet scholar, “Lenin’s criticism helped Gorky and then Lunacharsky recognize the falsehood of their ‘god building’ views and to overcome their ideological errors.” See N. A. Trifonov, in A. V. Lunacharsky, O Gor’kom (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1975), 8.

As an example of the confusion of Western scholars over the meaning of god building, see Adam Ulam, The Bolsheviks (New York, 1965), 273, where he describes it only as a “muddled philosophy” in which “the proletariat was to have a secular religion of its own,” and “sophomoric mumblings” akin to the very different god-seeking movement. A more serious comment is Jutta Scherrer, “Die Petersburger Religios-Philosophischen Vereinigungen,” Forschungen zur osteuropaischen Geschichte 9 (1963): 309–317, which clarifies the distinction between god building and god seeking, but does not relate philosophy to the struggle over politics and money in the Bolshevik underground.

The Soviet dissident historian Roy Medvedev has argued more recently that god building later provided the basis for Stalinism. Stalin, “by encouraging the cult of his own personality,” was “putting into effect some ideas of very early opportunists, such as the ‘god builders,’ who sought to make a god of the collective power of humanity, who preached a new ‘socialist’ religion ‘without a god.’” See Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge (New York: Knopf, 1972), 151.

6. Traditionally Bogdanov’s collectivism has been considered a minor heresy to Lenin’s orthodoxy and dominance of Bolshevism. Merle Fainsod, in his classic How Russia Is Ruled, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963), 46, referred only to “the philosophical heresies, the neo-Kantian Machism of Bogdanov and the God-Creator religionism of Lunacharsky and Gorky” which “challenged” Lenin’s “control of the party faction.” Another Lenin biographer, Louis Fischer, wrote that “the whole Marx-Mach, Lenin-Bogdanov controversy reflected the pathological state of a small party led by a combative talent intolerant of opposition and frustrated because his organization, cut off from home base, was melting away from lack of accomplishment”; The Life of Lenin (New York, 1964), 67. These views ironically derived from Lenin’s own portrait of Bogdanov and the other Bolsheviks as a deviant minority.

More recently scholars have begun to recognize that Bogdanov was an influential thinker and a major leader of Bolshevism before 1914, a rival of Lenin in both politics and philosophy who threatened to take over the faction around 1909. The philosophical dispute was outlined by Kendall E. Bailes in his “Philosophy and Politics in Russian Social Democracy: Bogdanov, Lunacharsky and the Crisis of Bolshevism, 1908–1909” (Master’s thesis, Columbia University, 1966). The first full biography of Bogdanov appeared in 1966: Dietrich Grille, Lenins Rivale: Bogdanow und seine Philosophie (Cologne, 1966).

By the 1970s scholars recognized that Lenin had distorted Bogdanov’s views, that Bogdanov in his novels Red Star and Engineer Menni was a precursor of Soviet science fiction, that Bogdanov’s philosophies of “tectology” and “empiriomonism” were forerunners of Western systems science. The utopian dream of a “proletarian culture” with its collectivist world view was recognized as an important part of Bolshevism. As the historian Peter Scheibert noted, “there remains in a Leninist Russia always something latently Bogdanovian”; “Lenin, Bogdanov, and the Concept of Proletarian Culture,” in B. W. Eissenstat, ed., Lenin and Leninism: State, Law, and Society (Toronto and London: D. C. Heath, 1971), 43–57. The French historian Georges Haupt also pointed out that around 1907 “the leadership of the Bolshevik splinter group slipped from Lenin’s hands and passed provisionally to the left-wing ‘Bolshevik’ Bogdanov” and that Lenin’s famous tome Materialism and Empiriocriticism (1909) “was not so much a matter of eliminating a philosophical heresy, as is now widely believed, but rather, the stake in the battle of theory was the direction or leadership of the Bolshevik splinter”; see G. Haupt and J.-J. Marie, Makers of the Russian Revolution, trans. C. I. P. Ferdinand (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974), 291.

More recently scholars have accepted the notion that there was “diversity in early Bolshevism” and that the Vpered circle of Bogdanov and Lunacharsky “was as legitimate an offspring of the Bolshevism of 1903 as was the fraction of Lenin.” See Zenovia A. Sochor, “Was Bogdanov Russia’s Answer to Gramsci?” Studies in Soviet Thought 22 (1981): 59–81, and John Biggart, “Anti-Leninist Bolshevism: The Forward Group of the RSDRP,” Canadian Slavonic Papers 23, no. 2 (June 1981): 134—153. It has been argued that “Bogdanov was a major ideological force within the Bolshevik movement and in a sense he even became a kind of co-leader with Lenin in the Party, at least from 1904 to 1907”; see Leland Fetzer, ed. and trans., Pre-Revolutionary Russian Science Fiction: An Anthology (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ardis, 1982), 1. None of these studies, however, has stressed the relationship between the philosophy of collectivism and the politics of syndicalism.

7. For some time scholars have recognized that the division within Bolshevism after 1905 involved a struggle for party funds. Leonard Schapiro noted that the Lenin-Bogdanov dispute “had little connection with the nature of sense perceptions. It is more probable that one of the main subjects of dispute was the question of the further disposal of the proceeds of the Tiflis robbery [of June 1907], which Bogdanov and Krasin wanted to use for an attempt to rescue Kamo from prison. But none of this aspect of the quarrel was made public. The dispute was throughout presented as one on issues of ideology.” Schapiro, Communist Party, 110. Kendall Bailes, on the other hand, argued that “expropriations and the money obtained from them played only a subordinate part in the split, becoming an issue only after Bogdanov had ceased to work with Lenin in June of 1908”; he concluded that “questions of philosophy were the primary cause of the break.” Bailes, “Philosophy and Politics,” 27, 139. In fact, both “god building” in philosophy and the financial expropriations were related to the politics of syndicalism after 1905.

1. The Word: Lenin, Bonch-Bruevich, and the Art of Secret Writing

1. L. Trotsky, The Young Lenin, trans. M. Eastman (New York: Doubleday, 1972), 6.

2. D. Kahn, The Codebreakers (New York: Signet, 1973), provides the best general survey of the history of codes and ciphers.

3. M. A. Rose, Reading the Young Marx and Engels: Poetry, Parody, and the Censor (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 148, 153.

4. B. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution (New York: Delta, 1978), 36.

5. V. I. Semevsky, M. V. Butashevich-Petrashevskii i Petrashevtsy (Moscow, 1922), 58–83.

6. V. Voinov, [A. V. Lunacharsky], “Petrashevskii-Butashevich,” in Russkii Biograjicheskii Slovar’ (St. Petersburg, 1902), 13:634—636.

7. Institut Marksizma-Leninizma, eds., K. Marks, F. Engel’s i Revoliutsionnaia Rossiia (Moscow: Politizdat, 1967), 244—245.

8. E. I. Pokusaev, ed., N. G. Chernyshevskii: Stat’i, Issledovaniia i Materialy (Saratov, 1965), vol. 4, especially B. I. Lazerson, “Ezopovskaia rech’ v publitsistike Chernyshevskogo,” 61–82. On the origins of Aesopian language in nineteenth-century Russia, see I. P. Foote, ed., M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin: Selected Satirical Writings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 17.

9. N. V. Valentinov, Encounters with Lenin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 70.

10. L. Haimson, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), 54—55; R. Pipes, Social Democracy and the St. Petersburg Labor Movement, 1885—1897 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963), 74. Plekhanov’s book was published under a pseudonym (N. Beltov), passed by the censor prior to publication, and sold out all three thousand copies within three weeks. An awakened censorship then forbade a second printing of what they correctly perceived to be a revolutionary tract in the guise of a philosophical tome. See R. Kindersley, The First Russian Revisionists: A Study of “Legal Marxism” in Russia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), 74–76.

11. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution, 221. On Bolshevik code words, see also D. J. Dallin, Soviet Espionage (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1955), 1. Also N. Krupskaya, Memories of Lenin, trans. R. E. Verney (London: Martin Lawrence, 1930), 1:77.

12. Kahn, The Codebreakers, 343.

13. Ibid., 344.

14. P. Kropotkin, Memoirs of a Revolutionist (New York: Anchor, 1962), 243.

15. A. Koestler, Darkness at Noon (New York: Macmillan, 1941), 24.

16. A. T. Vassilyev, The Ochrana: The Russian Secret Police (Philadelphia and London: Lippincott, 1930), 92–95.

17. Krupskaya, Memories 1:11.

18. R. McNeal, Bride of the Revolution: Krupskaya and Lenin (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972), 21–26. Also V. S. Drizdo et al., eds., Vospominaniia o Lenine (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1979), 1:68–69.

19. Reminiscences of A. Ulianova-Elizarova (1931) in V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Izd. pol. lit., 1967), 55:xxxv-xxxvi (hereafter Lenin, PSS).

20. Vospominaniia o Lenine 1:69–70.

21. M. Futrell, Northern Underground (London: Faber and Faber, 1963), 109. Lenin, PSS 46:47. Also, Lenin’s letter of October 26, 1900, to A. A. Yakubova, in Lenin, PSS, 46:53–57.

22. Perepiska V. I. Lenina i rukhovodimykh im uchrezhdenii RSDRP s partiinymi organizatsiiami, 1903–1905 g.g., 3 vols. (Moscow, 1974—1977), 1:290, 317, 372–373, 377 (hereafter Perepiska RSDRP).

23. Vladimir Petrovich Makhnovets (1872–1921), also known in party circles as Akimov, used the pseudonym “V. Bakharev” to publish O shifrakh (Geneva, 1902). A product of Marxist circles in St. Petersburg in the 1890s, Akimov escaped to Geneva in 1898, and supported Rabochee delo against Iskra and the Bund and Martov against Lenin in 1903. Lenin labeled him an “economist.” See J. Frankel, Vladimir Akimov on the Dilemmas of Russian Marxism 1893–1903 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 74—98.

24. Lenin, PSS 6:15–22.

25. Krupskaia to E. D. Stasova, January 24, 1903; cited in Perepiska RSDRP 1:72.

26. Tver committee of the RSDRP to Lenin, July 24, 1903; Perepiska RSDRP 3:438.

27. A. Bundovets, [P. 1. Rozental] Shifrovannoe pis’mo (Geneva, 1904), 10.

28. L. D. Fotieva, Iz zhizni V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1967), 8–9.

29. Lenin, PSS 46:406—407; N. E. Burenin to Krupskaya, May 23, 1905, Partiia v revoliutsii 1905 goda (Moscow: Marks-Engel’s Institut, 1934), 211–212; Edgar Wolberg to Lenin, November 27, 1909, box XVII, folder 19; Okhrana Archive, Hoover Institution, Stanford, California.

30. The Censorship Statute of 1865 is reproduced in Charles Ruud, Fighting Words: Imperial Censorship and the Russian Press, 1804–1906 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982), 237–252.

31. M. Ioffe, Izdatel’skaia deiatel’nost’ bol’shevikov v 1905–1907 gg. (Moscow: Kniga, 1971), 210. O. D. Golobeva, “Izdatel’skoe delo v Rossii v period pervoi russkoi revoliutsii (1905–1907 gg.),” Kniga 4 (1972): 116–117.

32. As an example of the listing of confiscated books, see Sistematicheskii ukazatel’ literatury za 1911 god (Moscow, 1912).

33. Ioffe, Izdatel’skaia deiatel’nost’ bol’shevikov v 1905–1907 gg., 166–167, 221–223. Perepiska RSDRP 1:172–173.

34. Engels to Paul Lafargue, December 30, 1871; Engels to C. Terzaghi, January 1872; in V. 1. Lenin, Anarchism and Anarcho-Syndicalism (New York: International Publishers, 1972), 58, 68, 79.

35. Jack J. Roth, The Cult of Violence: Sorel and the Sorelians (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 15–17, 21, 45–61, 79.

36. The best source of information on V. A. Posse is his memoir Moi zhiznennyi put’: do revoliutsionnyi period (1864—1917 gg.) (Moscow-Leningrad: Zemlia i Fabrika, 1929). Paul Avrich, The Russian Anarchists (New York: Norton, 1978), 139, notes that by 1917 Posse had been “propagating syndicalist doctrines” for over a decade.

37. Zhizn’, no. 1 (April 1902): 3.

38. Hubert Lagardelle, “Proletariat i armiia,” ibid., 353–400.

39. Zhizn’, no. 6 (September-December 1902): 184.

40. Gorky to K. P. Piatnitsky, January 20–24, 1902; Maksim Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Gos. izd. khudozh. lit-ry, 1949–1955), 28:224.

41. Posse, Moi zhiznennyi put’, 286.

42. Ibid., 323–324; Lenin, PSS 46:248–249.

43. V. A. Posse, Teoriia i praktika proletarskago sotsializma (Geneva, 1905), 49, 419.

44. Lenin, PSS, 46:260–261.

45. V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, Vospominaniia (Moscow, 1968), 102.

46. Zhizn’, no. 3 (June 1902): 159–160.

47. Zhizn’, no. 5 (August 1902): 198; see also Bonch-Bruevich’s articles on Russian sectarians in the same journal, no. 1 (April 1902): 293–334, no. 2 (May 1902): 280–307, no. 3 Qune 1902): 294–307.

48. Lenin, PSS 46:243–244, 268.

49. Lenin, PSS, 7:310. Also, P. N. Lepeshinsky, Na povorote (Moscow, 1955), 222.

50. Razsvet: sotsial-demokraticheskii listok dlia sektantov, no. 1 (January 1904): 3, 6.

51. Ibid., no. 3 (March 1904): 73–74.

52. V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, Izbrannye sochineniia (Moscow, 1961), 2:307–322, on the Geneva party library; see also A. S. Kudriatsov, ed., Lenin v Zheneve (Moscow, 1967).

53. Lenin, PSS 5:441.

54. Lenin, PSS, 46:382.

55. Bonch-Bruevich, Vospominaniia, 55, 111–112.

56. N. Tumarkin, “Religion, Bolshevism, and the Origins of the Lenin Cult,” Russian Review 40, no. 1 (January 1981): 39—40.

57. Fond dokumentov V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1970), 35–38, 42.

2. Matter into Energy: Vanguard Party and Workers’ Collective

1. Valentinov, Encounters, 215, 218.

2. Lenin, PSS 8:241–242n.

3. Ibid. 4:553. See also K. Shtreb, Lenin v Germanii (Moscow: Gos. izd. pol. lit., 1959), 17–18. Z. Zeman and W. Scharlau, Merchant of Revolution: The Life of Alexander Israel Helphand (Parvus), 1867–1924 (London, 1965), 52–58.

4. Lenin, PSS 4:2–13; Lenin’s article “S chego nachat?” from Iskra, no. 4 (May 13–15, 26–28, 1901).

5. K. Kautsky, “Die Revision des Programms der Sozialdemokratie in Osterreich,” Neue Zeit 20, no. 1 (1901–1902): 79.

6. Lenin, PSS 6:1–192 passim.

7. S. F. Vinogradov et al., Lenin i Moskovskie Bol’sheviki (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1969), 55–57.

8. G. A. Alexinsky, “Vospominaniia,” box 230, folder 3, p. 114, Nicolaevsky Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, California.

9. Lenin, PSS 55:71–73, 76. Lenin wrote A. N. Potresov on June 27, 1899, that Bogdanov was a good “monist” (Marxist) who “does not ignore Kantianism, he rejects it”; PSS 46:31.

10. Krupskaya to Bogdanov, October 2, 1901, in M. S. Volin et al., eds., Perepiska V. I. Lenina: redaktsii gazety “Iskra” s sotsial-demokraticheskimi organizatsiiami v Rossii, 1900–1903 gg. Sbornik dokumentov, 3 vols. (Moscow: Mysl’, 1969–70), 1:255. Hereafter Perepiska V. I. Lenina.

11. Lenin, PSS 46:175. Also Krupskaya’s letter to Bogdanov in Perepiska V. I. Lenina 1:545; 2:41–42, 89, 260.

12. L. Trotsky, My Life (New York: Scribner’s, 1930), 144.

13. Valentinov, Encounters, 152–168.

14. I. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Shaumian (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1965), 140.

15. On Bogdanov see especially the biography by Dietrich Grille, Lenins Rivale: Bogdanow und seine Philosophie (Cologne, 1966). The comparison with Gramsci is made in Z. A. Sochor, “Was Bogdanov Russia’s Answer to Gramsci?” Studies in Soviet Thought 22, no. 1 (February 1981): 59–81.

16. James D. White, “Bogdanov in Tula,” Studies in Soviet Thought 22, no. 1 (February 1981), 33–58.

17. A. Mendel, Dilemmas of Progress in Russia: Legal Marxism and Legal Populism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), 136, 198–199, 284—285, 288–289.

18. I. P. Kochno, “Vologodskaia ssylka Lunacharskogo,” in Literaturnoe nasledstvo (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), 82:606; Perepiska V. I. Lenina 1:444—446.

19. Perepiska V. I. Lenina 1:484–486, 520; 2:55, 80, 84.

20. Ibid. 2:231, 355.

21. Valentinov, Encounters, 235; A. V. Lunacharsky, Revolutionary Silhouettes, trans. M. Glenny (New York: Hill and Wang, 1968), 37.

22. See Bogdanov’s pamphlets published under the pseudonym Riadovoi: Iz-za chego voina chemu ona uchit? (Geneva, 1904), 12; Liberaly i sotsialisty (Geneva, 1904), 12, 28; Liberal’nye programmy (Geneva, 1904), 5.

23. Bogdanov, O Sotsializme (Geneva, 1904), 15–17. Bogdanov’s earlier writings include: Osnovye elementy istoricheskago vzgliada na prirodu (St. Petersburg, 1899); Poznanie s istoricheskoi tochki vzreniia (St. Petersburg, 1901); Iz psikhologii obshchestva (St. Petersburg, 1904). Among Marxists Bogdanov was probably best known for his survey of economics, Kratkii kurs ekonomicheskoi nauki (Moscow, 1897).

24. Bogdanov, Kratkii kurs, 9th ed. (Moscow, 1906), 279.

25. Bogdanov, Iz psikhologii obshchestva, 2d ed. (St. Petersburg, 1906), 5, 271.

26. Bogdanov, “Sobiranie cheloveka,” Pravda, no. 4 (1904), in his collected essays Novyi Mir (Moscow: S. Dorovatsky i A. Charushnikov, 1905), 12, 21, 37.

27. Bogdanov, “Normy i tseli zhizni,” Obrazovanie, no. 7 (1905), and “Prokliatye voprosy filosofii,” Pravda, no. 12 (1904), reprinted in Bogdanov, Novyi mir, 55—169.

28. Ocherki realisticheskago mirovozzreniia: sbornik statei po filosofti obshchestvennoi nauki i zhizni (St. Petersburg: S. Dorovatsky i A. Charushnikov, 1904). In this volume see especially S. Suvorov, “Osnovy filosofh zhizni,” 3–112, and A. V. Lunacharsky, “Osnovy positivnoi estetiki,” 113–183.

29. V. Bazarov, “Avtoritarnaia metafizika i avtonomnaia lichnost’,” in ibid., 183–278. See also in the same volume Bogdanov’s “Obmen i tekhnika,” 279–344.

30. A. V. Lunacharsky, “Tragizm i belaia magiia,” Obrazovanie, no. 9 (September 1902); citation from his Etiudy kriticheskie i polemicheskie (Moscow, 1905), 199. Also his “Idealist i positivist, kak psikhologicheskie tipy,” Pravda, no. 1 (January 1904); citation from Etiudy kriticheskie i polemicheskie, 278.

31. V. Bazarov, “Iz istorii prosvetitel’stva,” Pravda, no. 6 (June 1904), 105–126, and no. 7 (July 1904), 113–127. Also A. V. Lunacharsky, “Zhizn’ i literatura,” Pravda, no. 11 (November 1904), 263, 269. Bogdanov, Lunacharsky, Bazarov, and M. N. Pokrovsky were all frequent contributors to Pravda in 1904 and 1905.

32. Lenin’s pamphlets were usually published in two or three thousand copies by Kuklin’s printing house in Geneva in 1904 and 1905, while the pamphlets by Bogdanov and Lunacharsky usually ran three to five thousand copies. See A. F. Kostin, Boevoi organ revoliutsii: k 70-letiu gazety ‘Vpered’ (Moscow: Mysl’, 1975), 218–219.

33. Valentinov, Encounters, 111–151.

34. Ibid., 205–208; Lenin, PSS 47:141.

35. Valentinov, Encounters, 179, 183.

36. Ibid., 183–184.

37. The most complete biography of Ernst Mach is J. T. Blackmore, Ernst Mach: His Work, Life, and Influence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972). The best treatment of Mach’s thought is J. Bradley, Mach’s Philosophy of Science (London: Athlone, 1971). On Mach’s influence, see also D. S. Luft, Robert Musil and the Crisis of European Culture 1880–1942 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), and G. Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), and L. S. Feuer, Einstein and the Generations of Science (New York: Basic Books, 1974), and L. Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, trans. P. S. Falk (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), vol. 2, The Golden Age, 413–466.

38. W. Ostwald, “The Modern Theory of Energetics,” The Monist 17, no. 4 (October 1907): 481–550; J. G. Hibben, “The Theory of Energetics and Its Philosophical Bearings,” The Monist 13, no. 3 (April 1903): 321–330.

39. W. Ostwald, Individuality and Immortality (Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1906), 34, 72.

40. Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought, 224. See also H. Kleinpeter, “On the Monism of Professor Mach,” The Monist 16, no. 2 (April 1906): 161–168; P. Carus, “Professor Mach’s Philosophy,” The Monist 16, no. 3 (July 1906): 331–356.

41. E. Mach, Analysis of Sensations (1886; reprint, Chicago and London: Open Court, 1914), 4, 24–25, 37.

42. Ibid., 360, 363.

43. T. Bottomore and P. Goode, eds., Austro-Marxism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 11; R. Florence, Fritz (New York: Dial, 1971), 35–40. See also Adler’s subsequent analysis of Mach’s philosophy, Überwindung des mechanischen Materialismus (Vienna: Brand, 1918).

44. Feuer, Einstein 37–38.

45. L. Schapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York: Random House, 1960), 61.

46. A. Ulam, The Bolsheviks (New York: Collier, 1965), 202. See also Valentinov, Encounters, 83–85.

47. P. G. Dauge, “Moi vospominaniia o Lenine,” Vospominaniia o V. I. Lenine (Moscow: Izd. pol. lit., 1979), 2:134—135.

48. Bogdanov wrote Krupskaya on May 28, 1904, that he had met Trotsky and that “I don’t like him very much.” See RSDRP Perepiska 2:302.

49. M. N. Liadov wrote the editorial board of Iskra on June 29, 1904, that Riadovoi “has been in the ranks of social democracy for over ten years” but that “Lenin does not consider it his right to reveal his identity.” RSDRP Perepiska 2:367.

50. On the Amsterdam congress of the Second International, see James Joll, The Second International 1889–1914 (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 100–165. The story of the August 1904 discussions of Bogdanov and Lenin are in Krupskaya, Memories 2:107,and Valentinov, Encounters, 234—235.

51. S. M. Schwarz, The Russian Revolution of 1905 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 260; M. N. Liadov, Iz zhizni partii v 1903–1907godakh: vospominaniia (Moscow: Gos. izd-vo pol. lit-ry., 1956), 61–63.

52. Liadov, Iz zhizni partii v 1903–1907 godakh, 64–66.

53. Literaturnoe nasledstvo (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), 89:498; Lenin, PSS 46:396–397.

54. Lenin, PSS 46:404–406.

55. M. Panin, Kustamichestvo i partiinaia organizatsiia (Geneva: Tipografria partii, 1904), 25.

56. J. Stalin (Kutais) to M. N. Davitashvili (Leipzig), c. October 13, 1904, RSDRP Perepiska 3:52–54.

57. Valentinov, Encounters, 22; C. Weill, “A Propos du Terme ‘Bolschevisme,’” Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique 16, nos. 3–4 (July-December 1975): 353–363.

3. Self-Sacrifice: Gorky’s New Money and Moscow’s Old Believers

1. Peter Lösche, Die Bolschewiki im Urteil der deutschen Sozialdemokraten 1903—1920 (Berlin: Colloquium Verlag, 1967), 27–34; Botho Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten in Berlin 1895–1914 (Berlin, 1962), 39–44.

2. Abraham Ascher, Paul Axelrod and the Development of Menshevism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 196–199, 208–209, 217–218.

3. D. I. Antoniuk et al., eds., Perepiska V. 1. Lenina i rukovodimykh im uchrezhdenii RSDRP s partiinymi organizatsiiami, 1905—1907gg. (Moscow: Mysl’, 1979), vol. 1, part i, pp. 71–72 (hereafter Perepiska V. 1. Lenina 1905—1907).

4. B. A. Aizin et al., Lenin v bor’be za revoliutsionnyi Internatsional (Moscow: Nauka, 1970), 84; Axelrod to Kautsky, January 7, February 10, and February 17, 1905, file 16, box 2, folder 41, Nicolaevsky Collection; Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten in Berlin, 55–56; Ascher, Axelrod, 224–225; Lenin to Essen February 3, 1905, Perepiska V. I. Lenina 1905–1907, vol. 1, part i, p. 131; Lösche, Die Bolschewiki in Urteil der deutschen Sozialdemokraten, 43.

5. Krupskaya, Memories 1:112, 115, 120–121; Perepiska V. I. Lenina 1905–1907, vol. 1, part i, pp. 90, 98, 293.

6. Lenin to Bogdanov and S. I. Gusev, February 11, 1905, PSS 9:244–248; L. Schapiro, Communist Party, 59; M. Ioffe, Izdatel’skaya deiatel’nost’, 50.

7. Axelrod to Kautsky, April 10, 1905, file 16, box 2, folder 41, Nicolaevsky Collection; M. N. Liadov and S. N. Pozner, eds., Leonid Borisovich Krasin (“Nikitich”): gody podpol’ya, sbornik vospominanii, stat’i i dokumentov (Moscow, 1928), 352–353 (hereafter Liadov and Pozner, Krasin).

8. Bebel to Axelrod, late May 1905, Lenin v bor’be, p. 82 n. 48.

9. Lenin to V. V. Gurevich-Kozhevnikova, November 6, 1902, in B. A. Bialik et al., V. /. Lenin i A. M. Cor’kii (Moscow: Nauka, 1969), 227; Vinogradov, Lenin i Moskovskie Bol’sheviki, 58.

10. Lenin to Bogdanov, in Lenin, PSS 34: 230; also Leninskii sbornik 15: 233, 266.

11. Krupskaya to Bogdanov, December 15, 1904; Gorky (1957) 344–345; Leninskii sbornik, 15: 274; Bogdanov to Lenin, December 23, 1904, in Gorky, 349; Gorky, Letopis’ 1: 497, 501–502.

12. Lenin to Bogdanov, January 10, 1905, Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 3 (1925): 30.

13. Lenin to Litvinov, January 29, 1905, Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 2 (1925): 85.

14. J. Edie, J. Scanlon, and M. Zeldin, eds., Russian Philosophy (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1965), 1: 309.

15. Ibid., 153 (Lavrov), 256 (Dostoevsky); M. Confino, ed., Daughter of a Revolutionary: Natalie Herzen and the Bakunin-Nechaev Circle (Lasalle, Illinois: Library Press, 1974), 164.

16. George Plekhanov, “Notes to Engels’ Ludwig Feuerbach (1892),” in Edie, Scanlon, and Zeldin, Russian Philosophy 3:381.

17. See J. Bergman, “The Political Thought of Vera Zasulich,” Slavic Review 38, no. 2 (June 1979): 243–258.

18. Walter Sablinsky, The Road to Bloody Sunday: Father Capon and the St. Petersburg Massacre of 1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), 44—45.

19. M. F. Andreeva, Perepiska, vospominaniia, stat’i, dokumenty (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1968), 590, 592; L. B. Krasin, Dela davno minuvshikh dnei: vospominaniia (Moscow, 1934), 94, 104.

20. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 28:320; Andreeva, Perepiska, 80, 420; Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 71–72.

21. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 28:349; Paris Okhrana, report no. 6, January 24, 1905, file XVIIa, folder 2, Okhrana Archives.

22. M. Gorky, M. Gor’kii v epokhu revoliutsii 1905–1907 godov: Materialy, vospominaniia, issledovaniia (Moscow: Nauka, 1957), 297. Hereafter Gorky (1957).

23. Sablinsky, Bloody Sunday, 189–190.

24. Zeman and Scharlau, Parvus, 69–70; Gorky (1957), 69–71, 347–348.

25. Ioffe article in V. I. KPSS 2 (1966): 71.

26. Arkhiv Gor’kogo (Moscow, 1954), 7:131–132, 292–294; Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 28:401; V. I. Lenin i A. M. Gor’kii: pis’ma, vospominaniia, dokumenty (Moscow: Izd. Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1958), 205, 411.

27. Ioffe, in V. I. KPSS 2 (1966): 73, 75; Zeman and Scharlau, Parvus, 83.

28. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 23:345—367.

29. Gorky, Mother (New York: Collier, 1962), 144.

30. On Savva Morozov, see Gorky (1957), 12–36.

31. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4: 172; see also the portrait of Morozov in V. Nemirowitch-Dantchenko, My Life in the Russian Theater, trans. J. Cournos (Boston: Little-Brown, 1936), 130–134, and V. T. Bill, “The Morozovs,” Russian Review 14, no. 1 (January 1955): 109–116.

32. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 142.

33. B. Mogilevsky, Nikitich (Moscow, 1963), 58.

34. Andreeva, Perepiska, 676.

35. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 358.

36. E. N. Andrikanis, Khoziain “chertova gnezda” (Moscow, 1960), 28, 32–53.

37. Ibid., 40, 47. Also Gorky, Letopis’, 1:552–553.

38. Liubov Krasin, Leonid Krasin (London: Sheffington, 1929), 27. See also B. G. Kremnev, Krasin (Moscow, 1968).

39. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 17:54.

40. Kremnev, Krasin, 113.

41. Ibid., 128. Also S. M. Pozner, Pervaia boevaia organizatsiia bol’shevikov, 1905–1907 gg. (Moscow, 1934), 48, 51, 54, 80.

42. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 214–216.

43. On Lunacharsky, see R. C. Williams, Artists in Revolution: Portraits of the Russian Avant-Garde 1905—1925 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976), 23–58. On his later years as commissar of public enlightenment in Soviet Russia, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment: Soviet Organization of the Arts under Lunacharsky (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).

44. Lunacharsky’s speech of June 22, 1918, in Communist International, no. 3 (July 1, 1919): 353–354. 202 Notes for pages 64–69

45. Karl Kautsky, Der Ursprung des Christentums: ein historische Untersuchung (Stuttgart: Dietz, 1908), 307–308.

46. R. M. Chadbourne, Ernst Renan (New York, 1968), 50–51. Dennis Boak, Jules Romains (New York: Twayne, 1974), 26.

47. Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:522–524.

48. Liadov, Iz zhizni partii, 72. A. V. Lunacharsky, “Kak Peterburgskie rabochie k tsariu khodili,” published in Geneva in April 1905, in Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:546–558; also Lunacharsky, “Vozrozhdenie pravoslavnoi tserkvi,” Vpered, no. 16 (April 30, 1905), in ibid., 558–560.

49. Lunacharsky, “Tverdyi kurs,” Vpered, no. 5 (February 7, 1905), in Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:536.

4. Experience: Leonid Krasin and the Revolution of 1905

1. Esther Kingston-Mann, “Lenin and the Challenge of Peasant Militance: From Bloody Sunday, 1905, to the Dissolution of the First Duma,” Russian Review 38, no. 4 (October 1979): 434—455.

2. Partiia v revoliutsiia, 186–187, 216.

3. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 368–370. Lenin, PSS 47:35–36, 38, 47.

4. Lenin, PSS 47:39–40, 51–52. Partiia v revoliutsii, 194—195.

5. Ascher, Axelrod, 229. Zeman and Scharlau, Parvus, 58–59. Lenin, PSS 47:56–57.

6. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions 1:54–65.

7. I. Kuznetsov and A. Shumakov, Bol’shevistskaia pechat’ Moskvy (Moscow: Rabochii, 1968), 42. S. Vinogradov, Ego zvali Marat (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1967), 79, 121.

8. M. N. Pokrovsky, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, 1966), 1:8. I. Stepanov, Ot revoliutsii do revoliutsii (Moscow and Leningrad, 1925), 110. Ioffe, 1905—1907, 100. The Moscow literary-lecture group consisted mainly of doctors, lawyers, teachers, and university professors:

9. Vladimir Maksimovich Friche (1870–1929) was a prolific literary critic. His studies include Osnovnye motivy zapadno-evropeiskogo modernizma (1909), Torzhestvo pola i gibel’ tsivilizatsiia (1910), Poeziia koshmarov i uzhasa (1912), Ocherk razvitiia zapadnykh literatur (1908), Leonid Andreev (1909), Khudozhestvennaia literatura i kapitalizma (1906), and Ot Chernyshevskogo k “Vekham” (1910).

10. V. M. Shuliatikov, Izbrannye literaturno-kriticheskie stat’i (Moscow and Leningrad, 1929), 13. See also his other essays: Novaia stsena i novaia drama (1908), Neoaristokraticheskaia aristokratiia (1909), Opravdanie kapitalizma v zapadno-evropeiskoi filosofii (ot Dekarta do Makha) (1908). See also the collection of essays by the Moscow literary group, Tekuschii moment: sbornik (Moscow, 1905).

11. Ioffe, 1905–1907, 98–99. Golubeva, “Izdatel’skoe delo,” 126–127. G. E. Ryklin, Pero i serdtse bol’shevika (o I. I. Skvortsove-Stepanove) (Moscow, 1968), 13.

12. Vinogradov, Shantser, 120–121. G. Alexinsky, “Vospominaniia,” box 230, folder 3, pp. 40—41, Nicolaevsky Collection, Hoover Institution. Stepanov, Ot reuoliutsii, 11.

13. A. Ya. Zaitsev Bol’sheuistskaia pechat’ v dooktiabr’skii period: sbornik statei (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo MU, 1959), 54. Bonch-Bruevich, Izbrannye sochineniia 2:357.

14. Partiia v reuoliutsii, 150–151, 155–156. Gorky (1957), 344.

15. Partiia v reuoliutsii, 156–157. Gorky (1957), 51. Kuznetsov and Shumakov, Pechat’ 50–58.

16. Partiia v reuoliutsii, 171–173.

17. Bogdanov’s September 12 letter is cited in Zaitsev, Bol’sheuistskaia pechat’, 54. Partiia u reuoliutsii, 177–178.

18. Kremnev, Krasin, 121–122. Krasin, Vospominaniia, 38.

19. Futrell, Northern Underground, 66–84.

20. Ibid., 80–81. S. S. Elizarov et al., eds., Maksim Gor’kii u epokhu reuoliutsii 1905–1907, 63–65.

21. Gorky (1957), 63–64.

22. L. Engelstein, Moscow, 1905: Working Class Organization and Political Conflict (Stanford, 1982), 15, 69.

23. Vinogradov, Marat, 123. Alexinsky, “Vospominaniia,” 21.

24. Figures on the Moscow central committee expenditures for 1905 are taken from M. N. Pokrovsky, ed., 1905 (Moscow and Leningrad, 1926), passim. Elizarov, Gork’ii, 65–66. Vinogradov, Lenin i moskouskie bol’sheuiki, 119.

25. Engelstein, Moscow, 1905, 84, 93, 153, 220, 235. V. Nevsky, ed., Dekabr’ 1905 goda na Krasnoi Presne (Moscow and Leningrad, 1924), 81–82.

26. Andrikanis, Khoziain, 83–84.

27. Ibid., 86–89.

28. Vinogradov, Marat, 154.

29. Krupskaya, Memories 1:153, 155. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 186.

30. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions 1:100–102.

31. Kremnev, Krasin, 130.

32. Krupskaya, Memories 1:155. Valentinov, Encounters, 235—236.

33. “Tsenzura,” Bol’shaia souetskaia entsiklopediia (Moscow, 1934) 60:472, 472. Ioffe, 1905–1907, 162–163.

34. H. J. Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia from Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972), 130, 241.

35. Andreeva, Perepiska, 610. Gorky, Letopis’ 1:591. Futrell, Northern Underground, 58–59.

36. Andreeva, Perepiska, 426–427. Arkhiu Gor’kogo (Moscow: Nauka, 1976), 14:200–201.

37. M. Gorky, V Amerike: ocherki (Stuttgart, 1906), 74.

38. Andreeva, Perepiska, 133.

39. Arkhiu Gor’kogo 4:197–198. Andreeva, Perepiska, 134. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 256.

40. Arkhiu Gor’kogo 4:202–203. B. Mogilevsky, Prizuanie inzhenera Krasina (Moscow, 1970), 64–65.

41. Andreeva, Perepiska, 140, 420.

42. Arkhiu Gor’kogo 7:148. Berlin Okhrana report of December 6, 1906, box 324, file XVIIa, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

43. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 23:400—405. Gorky’s article, “Delo Nikolaia Shmita,” appeared in the Paris monthly Krasnoe Znamia, no. 6 (1906) and simultaneously in the London Times. Also Gorky v epokhu, 60–61. Arkhiu Gor’kogo 7:149–150.

44. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:155. Gorky, Letopis’ 1:650. Paris Okhrana, report no. 190, May 26, 1907, file XVIIa, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

45. N. N. O proletarskoi etike (Moscow, 1906) was an anonymous pamphlet edited by N. A. Rozhkov. The ideas and style suggest that the author was Bogdanov, or perhaps Krasin. See especially pp. 11, 17, 25, 32, 49, 53–54.

5. Myth: Lunacharsky, Syndicalism, and Collective Immortality

1. David Lane, The Roots of Russian Communism (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1969), 3, 41, 44. John Keep, The Rise of Social Democracy, 288–289.

2. la. A. Berzin-Ziemelis, “Pervye vstrechi s Leninym,” in M. F. Biron and A. K. Mishke, eds., Lenin v vospominaniiakh revoliutsionnerov Latvii (Riga, 1969), 36–37. Lenin, PSS 15:391.

3. A. Balabanoff, Impressions of Lenin (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1964), 17–25. A. P. Dudden, Joseph Fels and the Single Tax Movement (Philadelphia, 1971), 126–137. A. Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel (New York, 1938), pp. 71–75.

4. H. Pelling, The Origins of the Labor Party 1880–1900 (London: St. Martin’s, 1954) provides good background on the 1907 London congress setting.

5. David Shub, Lenin (New York: Doubleday, 1948), 122. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions 1:115.

6. F. D. Kretov, Bor’ba V. I. Lenina za sokhranenie i ukreplenie RSDRP v gody Stolypinskoi reaktsii (Moscow: Mysl’, 1969), 77.

7. Ibid., 11, 17.

8. Ibid., 17–18, 75–77. W. E. Walling, “Evolution of Socialism in Russia,” International Socialist Review 8, no. 1 (July 1907): 42—46.

9. V. Lenin and L. Kamenev, O boikote tretei dumy (Moscow, 1907), 7.

10. Leninskii sbornik 25:11.

11. Lenin to Lunacharsky, November 11, 1907, in Literaturnoe nasledstvo (Moscow, 1971), 80:33–34. Proletarii, no. 22 (February 19/March 4, 1908): 8; no. 23 (February 27/March 11, 1908): 7–8; and no. 36 (October 30, 1908): 6.

12. J. Estey, Revolutionary Syndicalism (London: King, 1913) is still a good general study; see also Rudolf Rocker, Anarcho-Syndicalism (London: Secker and Warburg, 1938). On the relationship between syndicalism and modernist thought, see E. E. Jacobiti, “Labriola, Croce, and Italian Marxism (1895–1910),” Journal of the History of Ideas 36, no. 2 (April-June 1975): 297–318, and the older but insightful essay by J. W. Scott, Syndicalism and Philosophical Realism (London: A. and C. Black, 1919).

13. G. Sorel, Reflections on Violence (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1961), 64, 124–125.

14. Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 748, 750.

15. I. L. Horowitz, Radicalism and the Revolt against Reason (New York: Humanities Press, 1961), 252–254; J. J. Roth, The Cult of Violence: Sorel and the Sorelians (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1980), 37–38.

16. J. Joll, The Second International 1889–1914 (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 203–204.

17. Paul Mazgai, The Action Française and Revolutionary Syndicalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 76–95.

18. Roth, Sorel, 40–42; Mazgai, Action Française, 115–117. Lagardelle’s letter to Meerheim is cited in Akademiia Nauk, SSSR, Institut istorii, Istoriia vtorogo internatsionala (Moscow, 1966), 2:246.

19. B. Holton, British Syndicalism 1900–1914: Myths and Realities (London: Pluto, 1976), passim. On syndicalism in Japan, see Hyman Kublin, Asian Revolutionary: The Life of Sen Katayama (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 194–208.

20. Roth, Sorel, 28–29, 32; David Roberts, The Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 54, 73–79.

21. Roberts, Syndicalist Tradition, 57–85.

22. Ibid., 85. Roth, Sorel, 74–75. Arturo Labriola, “From Parliaments to Labor Unions,” International Socialist Review 7, no. 11 (May 1907); 667–677.

23. A. J. Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1979), 37—49, 51–73. Also Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism, trans. L. Vennewitz (New York, Chicago, and San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1966), 154–155, 164.

24. P. Renshaw, The Wobblies (New York: Doubleday, 1967), 64–66. M. Dubovsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the l.W.W. (New York: Quadrangle, 1969), 78.

25. P. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States (New York: International Publishers, 1965), vol. 4, The l.W.W., 1905–1917, 36, 52, 69. Gorky’s story “The Masters of Life” appears in Mother Earth 1, no. 11 (January 1907): 48–60.

26. Dubovsky, We Shall Be All, 138–140.

27. Paul Avrich, The Russian Anarchists (New York: Norton, 1978), 76–78, 85–86.

28. Ibid., 93–94, 102–106, 111. Peter Kropotkin, Russkaia revoliutsiia i anarkhizm (London, 1907), 7, 12, 74, 85.

29. P. Strel’sky, Samoorganizatsiia rabochago klassa (St. Petersburg, 1906), 90. Viktor Chernov, Filosofskie i sotsiologicheskie etiudy (Moscow, 1907), 364–379, and Teoretiki romanskogo sindikalizma (Moscow, 1908), introduction, 189.

30. D. I. Novomirskii, Iz programmy sindikal’nago anarkhizma (Odessa: Golos i trud, 1907), 17, 20, 24, 26, 36, 44, 60, 97.

31. V. Bazarov (V. I. Rudnev), Anarkhicheskii kommunizm i marksizm (St. Petersburg, 1906), 155, 160.

32. V. Sorel, Razmyshleniia o nasilii, trans. V. Fritche (St. Petersburg: Pol’za, 1907), 56–57. See also Sorel’s Sotsial’nye ocherki sovremennoi ekonomii: degeneratsiia kapitalizma i degeneratsiia sotsializma, trans. G. Kirdetsov (St. Petersburg: Dorovatovsky i Charushnikov, 1907), introduction, v.

33. P. Strel’sky, Novaia sekta v riadakh sotsialistov (Moscow, 1908), 22–23, 33. Also by the same author, “Predposylki ‘revoliutsionnyi sindikalizma,’” Obrazovanie 23, no. 13 (May 1907): 6–26. Other essays on syndicalism include V. A. Posse and A. Nedrov, Rabochii vopros (St. Petersburg, 1906), and L. Kozlovsky, Ocherki sindikalizma v Frantsii (Moscow, 1907). From the anarchist point of view, see M. Korn (M. Izdina), Revoliutsionnyi sindikalizm i anarkhizm (Geneva: Khleb i volia, 1907). Struve’s comment on Sorel is cited in Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Right, 1905—1944 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 106.

An official Soviet comment was that “in 1908 the French syndicalist Georges Sorel’s book Social Essays on Contemporary Economics was published in translation in Russia, where it said that Marxism was based on hypotheses, contradicted by observation and belief, and the teaching that capitalism would collapse was only a ‘myth’ which in real life ‘might happen, but will never actually take place,’” from Istoriia SSSR (Moscow, 1966), 2:270–271.

34. Dnevnik sotsial-demokrata, no. 2 (August 1905): 11, 21.

35. G. Plekhanov, “Pis’ma o taktike i bestaktnosti,” Golos truda, no. 12 (March-April 1906); reproduced in Plekhanov, Sobranie sochinenii 15: 112–122. 1906), in Sobranie sochinettii 15:146, 153.

36. Plekhanov, Sobranie sochinenii 15:391, 411–412. Sovremennyi mir, no. 1 (January 1907): 260–265. M. Iovchuk and I. Kurbatova, Plekhanov (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1976), 251–252.

37. G. Plekhanov, Materialismus Militans (Moscow: Progress, 1973), 12, an essay published in 1907. G. Plekhanov, “Arturo Labriola,” Sovremennyi mir, nos. 11–12 (December 1907), in Plekhanov’s Sobranie sochinenii 16: 8, 22.

38. Arturo Labriola, “L’onesta polemica contro G. Plekhanoff e per il sindicalismo,” Pagine Libere 2, no. 6 (March 15, 1908): 326. Plekhanov’s April 1908 review of Enrico Leone’s book on syndicalism, in Sobranie sochinenii 16:81, 126. Other reviews of books by Olivetti, Chernov, and Paul Louis by Plekhanov in 1908 are contained in Sobranie sochinenii 16:127–146.

39. Joseph Dietzgen, Some of the Philosophical Essays on Socialism and Science, Religion and Ethics, Critique-of-Reason and the World at Large (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1906), 90–154.

40. Ibid., 90–91, 115, 134, 141, 150, 233.

41. Ibid., 282–283, 302, 305.

42. C. Huygens, “Dietzgens Philosophie,” Neue Zeit 21 (1902): 197–207. Pannekoek edited Dietzgen’s Das Wesen der Menschlichen Kopfarbeit (Stuttgart, 1903) and cited Dietzgen’s work in his Religion und Sozialismus (Bremen, 1906), 6, 28. See also Pannekoek’s essay “Socialism and Religion,” International Socialist Review 7, no. 9 (March 1907): 551, 555.

43. D. A. Shannon, The Socialist Party of America: A History (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 18–19, 66.

44. N. Rumiantseva, F. A. Sorge (Moscow, 1966), 173. Karl Kautsky, Ethik und Materialistische Geschichts-Auffassung (Stuttgart, 1906), introduction, v.

45. Pannekoek, “Socialism and Religion.” Also his article “The Social Democratic Party School in Berlin,” International Socialist Review 8, no. 6 (December 1907): 323, and M. Hitch, “Dietzgenism,” in the same journal, 8, no. 5 (November 1907): 295, 298.

46. T. C. Hall, “The Element of Faith in Marxism,” International Socialist Review 8, no. 7 (January 1908): 392, and “Socialism and Religion,” ibid., 9, no. 1 (July 1908): 41. Arturo Labriola, “From Parliaments to Labor Unions,” ibid. 7, no. 2 (May 1907): 671. Friedrich Adler, “The Discovery of the World Elements,” ibid. 8, no. 10 (April 1908): 577–588.

47. Vospominaniia o Lenine 2:137.

48. P. Dauge, Iosif Ditsgen (Moscow, 1934), 124–125. Ioffe, 1905–1907, 215. Lenin, PSS 15:391. Joseph Dietzgen, Erkenntnis und Wahrheit (1888) in the edition of his son, Eugen Dietzgen (Stuttgart, 1908), 394, 416, 419.

49. Iosif Ditsgen, Zavoevaniia (Akvizit) filosofii i pis’ma o logike: spetsial’no demokraticheskaia proletarskaia logika (St. Petersburg, 1906). Ernst Untermann, Antonio Labriola i Iosif Ditsgen (St. Petersburg, 1907). Reviewed by Plekhanov in Sovremennyi mir, no. 7 (1907); see Plekhanov, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 18:274–292.

50. Lenin, PSS 47:143, and 55:255, 397. I. Gelfond, “Filosofiia Ditsgena i sovremennyi pozitivizm,” in Ocherki po filosofii Marksizma: filosofskii sbornik (St. Petersburg, 1908), 243–290; also Lunacharsky’s remarks, ibid., 155, 159.

51. Franz Mehring, Gesammelte Werke (Berlin, 1961), 13:212–213. Karl Kautsky, “Ein Brief uber Marx und Mach,” Der Kampf 2 (1908–1909): 451–452, dated March 26, 1909. Henriette Roland-Holst, Joseph Dietzgens Philosophie in ihrer Bedeutung für das Proletariat (Munich: Verlag fur die Proletariat, 1910), 6–7, 28, 35, 59, 76. Hermann Gorter, Der Historische Materialismus, trans. A. Pannekoek (Stuttgart, 1909), 128.

52. Ernst Untermann, Die logischen Mängel des engeren Marxismus: Georg Plekhanow et alii gegeti Josef Dietzgen (Munich: Verlag der Dietzgenischen Philosophie, 1910), 15, 31, 561, 569. V. I. Lenin, “K dvadtsatipiati letiiu smerti Iosifa Ditsgena,” in PSS 23:117–120, published in Pravda on May 5–18, 1913. Ortodox (L. Akselrod), in Nasha Zaria, no. 9 (September 1913): 1–9. Adolf Hepner, Josef Dietzgens Philosophische Lehren (Stuttgart, 1916), 16. M. Klein, E. Lange, and F. Richter, eds., Zur Geschichte der Marxistisch-Leninistischen Philosophie in Deutschland (Berlin, 1969), 2:445—464.

53. Vladimir Soloviev, Sobranie sochinenii (St. Petersburg, n.d.), 10:190.

54. J. Woodward, Leonid Andreyev: A Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 138. Fedorov’s ideas are collected as N. F. Fedorov, Filosofiia obshchago dela: stat’i, mysli, i pis’ma Nikolaia Fedorovicha Fedorova (Verny, 1906; Moscow, 1913). Boris Savinkov wrote under the name Ropshin, The Pale Horse (New York: Knopf, 1919), 96, 137.

55. A. 1. Izgoev in Vekhi (Moscow, 1909), 118–119.

56. Enrico Ferri, Socialism and Modern Science, trans. R. R. LaMonde (1894; reprint, Chicago: Kerr, 1909), 68, 72. Gustav Bjorklund, Death and Resurrection from the Point of View of the Cell Theory (London: Open Court, 1910), 34, 91, 123–124. F. A. Le Dantec, The Nature and Origin of Life, in the Light of New Knowledge (New York: Barnes, 1906), 248–250. M. Guyau, The Non-Religion of the Future (New York: Holt, 1897), 532–533.

57. A. Kollontai, “Problema nravstvennosti s pozitivnoi tochki zreniia,” Obrazovanie 14, no. 10 (October 1905): 96, and the same author, “Etika i sotsial-demokratiia,” Obrazovanie 15, no. 2 (February 1906): 24–27. N. A. Rozhkov, Osnovy nauchnoi filosofii (St. Petersburg, 1911), 131–132.

58. A. V. (Voinov) Lunacharsky, “Massovaia politicheskaia stachka,” Proletarii, no. 1 (May 14–27, 1905): 3–4. Ibid., no. 4 (June 4–17, 1905): 1, 4. Also Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:5—7, 26.

59. Gorky, Letopis’ 1:633. Arkhiv Gor’kogo, (Moscow: Nauka, 1976), 14:22. Gorky’s letter to Grigorii Alexinsky, dated 1907, box 3, Alexinsky Archive.

60. V. Desnitskii, A. M. Gor’kii (Moscow, 1959), 196–197. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4:221. Literaturnoe nasledstvo (Moscow, 1970), 82:555. An official Soviet version is that “in an afterward to Labriola’s book, Lunacharsky approached syndicalist dogmas uncritically and allowed them to remain, departing from Marxist teachings”; see Istoriia KPSS (Moscow, 1966), 2:253.

61. Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:619–626.

62. Lunacharsky, Vospominaniia i vpechatleniia, 47.

63. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4:210–216, and 14:19.

64. A. V. Lunacharsky, “Vopros o vzaimootnoshenii partii i professional’nykh soiuzov na Shtuttgartskom Mezhdunarodnom Kongresse,” typescript dated Geneva, 1907, in the Alexinsky Archive, pp. 50, 54—56, 63, 66, 75, 80, 87. The edited version appeared as “Novye puti,” Raduga, no. 3 (November 1907): 45–78. Lunacharsky’s remarks also appeared in “Nekotorye prognozy,” Roduga, no. 3 (November 1907): 76–78.

65. Lenin’s reply appeared in Raduga, no. 3, as well, and was later published in Leninskii sbornik, (Moscow, 1933), 25:112–121.

66. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 14:16–19, 28–30.

67. G. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War: The Collapse of the Socialist International (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 20–23.

68. I. M. Krivoguz, Vtoroi internatsional 1889–1914 (Moscow, 1964), 300. Daniel De Leon: The Man and His Work, A Symposium (New York: Socialist Labor Party, 1920), 59–61, 130. Lenin, PSS 47:300. Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel, 82, 85.

69. Lenin, Khronika 2:345. Paris Okhrana, report no. 381, September 13, 1907, box XXVb, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

70. Okhrana report, ibid.

71. Lenin, Khronika 2:335–340.

72. Ibid., 359–364. Lenin, PSS 55:240–241, 501.

73. G. V. Kniazeva, Bor’ba bol’shevikov za sochetanie nelegal’noi i ilegal’noi partiinoi raboty v gody reaktsii (1907–1910 gg.) (Leningrad, 1964), 58–59. F. D. Kretov, Bor’ba V. I. Lenina za sokhranenie i ukreplenie RSDRP v gody Stolypinskoi reaktsii (Moscow: Mysl’, 1969), 23. Lenin, Khronika 2:370.

74. Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten, 75–77.

6. Expropriation: Stalin and the Georgians as Bank Robbers

1. Krupskaya, Memories 1:162.

2. Lenin, PSS 47:120–121. Literatumoe nasledstvo 80:36. Lenin, Sochineniia (Moscow, 1935), 28:508–509, 512–513.

3. A. Rubakin, Rubakin (Moscow, 1967), 61. A. Senn, The Russian Revolutionaries in Switzerland 1914—1917 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971), 6–7.

4. Kretov, Bor’ba, 60. Lenin, Khronika 2:397.

5. Krupskaya, Memories 1:172–173. Lenin, Sochineniia 28:518–519, 523–524, 529–531.

6. Avrich, Russian Anarchism, 38—40.

7. A. Maskulia, Mikha Tskhakaia (Moscow, 1968), 69, 77–78.

8. Lenin, PSS 46:518 n. 298. Perepiska V. I. Lenina 1905–1907, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 51, 154—157. Krupskaya, Memories 1:123, 125.

9. R. C. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), vol. 1, The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party 1898-October 1917, 100, 115 (hereafter Elwood, Resolutions).

10. Lenin, PSS 47:112–113. S. Volsky, “Revoliutsionnyi sindikalizm, “ Raduga, no. 1 (June 1907), pp. 38–79. Lenin, PSS 47:152–154.

11. Lenin, Sochineniia 28:535–539.

12. Ibid., 508, 541.

13. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:173; 14:33–34; 4:225–226.

14. B. A. Bialik et al., eds., V. I. Lenin i A. M. Gor’kii (Moscow: Nauka, 1958), 206–207. Gorky, Letopis’ 2:10, 15. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4:230; 7:177.

15. Lenin, Sochineniia (1935), 28:533. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4:235—237. N. B. Malinovskaya to G. Alexinsky, April 2, 1908, box 2, Alexinsky Collection. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:181 and 14:207–208.

16. Lenin, PSS 15:437. Krupskaya, Memories 1:184.

17. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 14:39–41; 7:182–183.

18. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4:259, 261. Gorky and Andreeva to Alexinsky, 1908, n.d., and Gorky to Alexinsky, 1908, n.d., box 3, Alexinsky Collection. S. Livshits, “Kapriiskaia partiinaia shkola (1909 g.),” Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 6 (1924): 36.

19. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 4:260–266. Gorky to Alexinsky, Summer 1908, box 3, Alexinsky Collection.

20. V. Prokofiev, Dubrovinskii (Moscow, 1969), 193–195. Lenin, PSS 14:3—4.

21. Lenin, Sochineniia (1935), 28:514—515, 534. C. Huysmans, Correspondance entre Lénine et Camille Huysmans 1905–1914 (Paris and The Hague: Mouton 1963), 47–48, 50.

22. Huysmans, Correspondance, 52–53, 56, 62–63. Lenin, Sochineniia (1935), 28:548.

23. K. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered’ (1909–1917 gg.),” Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 6 (1924): 15. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 52–53.

24. Avrich, Russian Anarchism, 47.

25. A. Talanov, Bessmennyi chasovoi (tor. Kamo) (Moscow, 1968), 27. S. M. Pozner, ed., Boevaia gruppa pri TsK RSDRP(b) (1905–1907 gg.) (Moscow and Leningrad, 1927), 71. B. Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten, 152.

26. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution, 389–390. B. Mogilevsky, Nikitich (Moscow, 1963), 68–69.

27. Paris Okhrana, report no. 270, August 30, 1906, box Xllc(2), folder 12B, Okhrana Archive. V. Alekseev, “Demskaia ekspropriatsiia,” in 1905 (Ufa, 1925), 161. Report of Paris Okhrana dated December 7, 1906, box XXb, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

28. B. Kremnev, Krasin, 151. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 45, 385. Testimony of Georgy Chicherin, April 28, 1910, in box 4, Alexinsky Collection. Futrell, Northern Underground, 63–64. Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten, 152. Maskulia, Mikha Tskhakaia, 105–107.

29. Okhrana, report no. 394, September 11, 1907, box XXVc, folder 1; and report no. 402, September 27, 1907, Box XXVc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 45. S. M. Pozner, Boevaia gruppa, 252.

30. Report to the Paris Okhrana from the Swiss Department of Justice and Police, January 21, 1908, box XXb, folder 1; Report of the Russian Consul, Stockholm, January 24, 1908, box XXB, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

31. Karl Baedeker, Russia: A Handbook for Travellers (New York: Scribner’s, 1914), 465–471.

32. D. Shub, Lenin (New York: Doubleday, 1948), 123. L. Trotsky, Stalin, 104. B. Souvarine, Stalin, trans. C. Jones (New York: Alliance, 1939), 92, 95.

33. Paris Okhrana, report no. 280, July 8, 1907, box XXVc, folder 2; and report no. 420, October 12, 1907, box XXVHc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. Also report no. 451, October 13, 1907, box XXVc, folder 1. Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten, 74.

34. Paris Okhrana, report no. 490, November 13, 1907, box XXb, folder 2; also the report on Kamo dated November 14, 1907, box XXVHc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

35. Okhrana file on Zhitomirsky as a “deep cover” agent, box Illf, Okhrana Archive.

36. L. Shaumian, Kamo (Moscow: Politizdat, 1959), 97. Bavarian police report II 96931, January 27, 1908, box XXVe, folder 2, Okhrana Archive. N. Burenin, Pamiatnye gody: vospominaniia (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1961), 259–260. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 247. Shaumian, Kamo, 123.

37. Lenin, PSS 47; 148–150, 318. Golos sotsial-demokrata, no. 3 (March 1908): 18. Huysmans, Correspondance, 54.

38. Paris Okhrana, report no. 527, December 12, 1907, on the Schmidt inheritance, box XXVb, folder 2, and report no. 538, December 16, 1907, box XIc(4), folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

39. Volsky, “Kak Lenin zhil v emigratsii,” box 164, file 1, folder 2(3), p. 70, Nicolaevsky Collection, Hoover Institution. On the Taratuta Affair, see “Delo Viktora,” box 7, Alexinsky Collection. O. Piatnitsky, Izbrannye vospominaniia i stat’i (Moscow, 1969), 105—106.

40. Volsky, “Kak Lenin,” 69–72.

41. G. Alexinsky, “Vospominaniia,” box 230, file 3, p. 96, Nicolaevsky Collection, Hoover Institution. Vol’sky, “Kak Lenin,” 71.

42. N. Andrikanis, Khoziain, 89. Georgy Chicherin testimony, April 28, 1910, box 4, Alexinsky Collection. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii (1955), 29:27. Paris Okhrana, report no. 529, December 12, 1907; box XXVc, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

43. Paris Okhrana report dated May 29, 1908; box XVIIm, folder 5, Okhrana Archive. L. Kamenev, Dve partii (n.p., 1911), 143–144.

44. Andrikanis, Khoziain, 223–224. Paris Okhrana, report no. 204, June 13, 1908; box XXVb, folder 2, Okhrana Archive. See also Krasin’s letter to Gorky and Andreeva, October 24, 1908, in Andreeva, Perepiska, 168.

45. Leninskii sbornik (1975), 38:32–35. Lenin, PSS 47:283–284. Burenin, Pamiatnye gody, 250–272.

46. I. F. Detushev, Velikye nezabyvaemye dni (Moscow, 1970), 224–236. Burenin, Pamiatnye gody, 262–270. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 247. Krupskaya, Memories 186.

47. Paris Okhrana, report no. 375, July 16, 1909; box XVIb(6)(a), Okhrana Archive. Lenin, PSS 47:216–217. Leninskii sbornik (1975), 38:32–35. Volsky, “Kak Lenin,” passim.

48. Paris Okhrana, report no. 1373, December 3, 1915, box XXVc, Okhrana Archive.

49. L. Shaumian, Izbrannye sochineniia (Moscow, 1957), 1:267–268. V. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Shaumian (Moscow, 1965), 156.

50. R. Tucker, Stalin, 105. S. Alliluyev, The Alliluyev Memoirs, trans. D. Tutaev (New York: Putnam, 1967), 132. Stalin, Works 2:47–80, 82, 90–94.

51. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Shaumian, 139–140. L. Shaumian, Izbrannye sochineniia 1:285—288, letter of Shaumian to Tskhakaya, early November 1908. B. Morozov et al., Iz istorii bor’by V. I. Leniny za ukreplenie partii (Moscow, 1964) 181.

52. E. Smith, Young Stalin, 225. S. Beridze, Mikha Tskhakaia (Tiflis, 1965), 57–58. Stalin, Works 2:150–162, 169–173. M. S. Iskenderova et al., Ocherki istorii kommunisticheskoi partii Azerbaidzhana (Baku, 1963), 129.

53. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Shaumian, 156, in a letter of Stalin to M. Toroshelidze dated spring 1909.

54. Kretov, Bor’ba, 141.

55. Lenin, PSS, 47:283–284.

56. K. E. Moring, Die Sozialdemokratische Partei in Bremen 1890–1914 (Hannover, 1968), 106–117.

57. KPSS v resoliutsiakh (1970), 1:241–247. Schapiro, Communist Party, 108.

58. G. Alexinsky, “Chto zhe dal’she?” Proletarii, no. 34 (September 7, 1908), pp. 2— 4. Kretov, Bor’ba, 79. Prokofiev, Dubrovinskii, 195. Lenin, PSS 28:550.

59. Shaumian, Izbrannye sochineniia 2:285–287, letter from Shaumian to Tskhakaia, early November 1908.

60. Krupskaya, Memories, 191. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 166–167.

61. Grille, Lenins Rivale, 32. Kremnev, Krasin, 162. Paris Okhrana, report no. 127089, April 5, 1909, box XVIIa, folder la; also report no. 208, April 27, 1909, box XXVc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

62. F. P. Bystrykh, Bol’shevistskie organizatsii Urala v revoliutsii 1905–1907 godov (Sverdlovsk, 1959), 322. The “Sasha letter” is dated July 1907 and may be found in box 11, Alexinsky Collection.

63. “Sasha Letter,” box 11, Alexinsky Collection. Paris Okhrana, report no. 133, April 20, 1908, box XXVc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. Avrich, Russian Anarchism, 69. Kretov, Bor’ba, 118–119. Paris Okhrana, report no. 441, November 26, 1908; box XXVc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

64. Proletarii, no. 45 (May 26, 1909): 1—4.

65. Kamenev, Dve partii, 144—145. Also, box 11, Alexinsky Collection. Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:42–43. Paris Okhrana intercepted letter from a Social Revolutionary in Paris to a Mrs. Golubeva in Kiev, December 14, 1909, box XXIVj, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

7. Mind over Matter: Orthodoxy against Science

1. Ioffe, Izdatel’skaya deiatel’nost’, 213.

2. Lenin, Khronika 2:306–310, 319, 331, 334, 342.

3. Ibid., 341, 346. Lenin, PSS 6:467 n. 1. Golubeva, “Izdatel’skoe delo,” 126.

4. Lenin, Khronika 2:396, 408. V. Lenin, Podgotovitel’nye materialy k knige “Razvitie kapitalizma v Rossii” (Moscow: Izd. pol. lit., 1970), 633. Zagranichnaia gazeta, no. 2 (March 23, 1908): 7.

5. G. Alexinsky, “Vospominaniia,” 199, 284—289.

6. For a succinct elaboration of Bogdanov’s world view, see A. Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970), 446–454.

7. A. Bogdanov, Empiriomonism (St. Petersburg, 1906), 3:iv-v, 101.

8. N. Eurich, Science in Utopia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 244. I. F. Clarke, The Pattern of Expectation 1644—2001 (New York: Basic, 1979), passim.

9. Grille, Lenins Rivale, 162. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 139–140.

10. A. Bogdanov, Krasnaia zvezda (utopiia) (1907; reprint, Moscow, 1918), 10, 37.

11. Ibid., 38, 44, 47, 74.

12. Ibid., 83, 93, 95.

13. Ibid., 161–162.

14. Liadov and Pozner, Krasin, 140.

15. Blackmore, Mach, 237–238.

16. Ibid., 239.

17. N. V. Volsky to Ernst Mach, November 6, 1907, box 2, Boris Souvarine Collection, Hoover Institution. Published in Le Contrat Social 4, no. 3 (May-June 1961): 171–177.

18. Ernst Mach to N. V. Volsky, December 1, 1907, box 2, Volsky Papers, Hoover Institution.

19. Bogdanov’s article appeared in Neue Zeit 26 (1907–1908): 695–700.

20. A. Bogdanov, “K kharakteristike filosofii proletarii,” Raduga, no. 4 (February 1908): 88–112.

21. Ocherki po filosofii Marksizma: filosofskii sbornik, (St. Petersburg, 1908), 10–11, 14, 66, 69, 71, 91.

22. Ibid., 125, 148, 157, 159.

23. Ibid., 159.

24. Ibid., 160.

25. Ibid., 215–242; Bogdanov’s article is entitled “Strana idolov i filosofiiamarksizma. “

26. A. Bogdanov, Prikliucheuiia odnoi filosofskoi shkoly (St. Petersburg, 1908), 21, 33, 35, 38, 66.

27. Gorky to E. P. Peshkova, February 1908; J. Scherrer and G. Haupt, “Gor’kij, Bogdanov, Lenin. Neue Quellen zur ideologischen Krise in der Bolschewistischen Fraktion (1908–1910),” Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique 19, no. 3 (July-September 1978): 324. See also V. Shuliatikov, Iz teorii i praktiki klassovoi bor’by (Moscow, 1907), 46, 79. E. Gorodetsky and Yu. Sharapov, Ya. M. Sverdlov (Sverdlovsk, 1973), 58–59. Gorky to Bogdanov, March 24, 1908, in Haupt and Scherrer, “Gor’kij, Bogdanov, Lenin,” 323.

28. F. Adler, “Die Entdeckung der Weltelemente: zur Ernst Machs 70 Geburtstag,” Der Kampf 1, no. 5 (February 1908): 231–240, translated by Ernst Untermann for the International Socialist Review 8, no. 10 (April 1908): 579—588. Zagranichnaia gazeta, no. 3 (March 30, 1908), p. 5, and no. 4 (April 13, 1908), pp. 3–5.

29. Golos sotsial-demokrata, nos. 4—5 (April 1908): 3–12.

30. Kamenev to Bogdanov, May 26, 1908, Pod znamenem Marksizma, nos. 9–10 (1932): 203. Andreeva, Perepiska, 167. Proletarii, no. 31 (June 17, 1908): 2–3. Bogdanov to the editorial board of Proletarii, June 27, 1908, in Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:35.

31. Gorky to Bogdanov, fall 1908, in Haupt and Scherrer, “Gor’kij, Bogdanov, Lenin,” 327. Kamenev to Bogdanov, November 28, 1908, cited in V. Ignatiev et al., Iz istorii bor’by Leninskoi partii protiv opportunizma (Moscow, 1966), 194. Kretov, Bor’ba, 116. N. Valentinov, Filosofskie postroeniia Marksizma (Moscow, 1908), 155, 251. V. Shuliatikov, Opravdanie kapitalizma v zapadno-evropeiskoi filosofii (ot Dekarta do E. Makha) (Moscow, 1908), 7, 13.

32. Vospominaniia Lenina 2:63. Lenin, PSS 10:134.

33. G. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia (Moscow, 1957), 3:71. N. Rakhmetov [O. Blium], K filosofii Marksizma: dve stat’i o russkikh empiriokritikakh (Geneva, 1906), 11, 36.

34. A. Lilley, The Programme of Modernism, trans. G. Tyrrell (New York and London: Putnam, 1908), 149–245, a translation of Pope Pius X’s encyclical “Pascendi Gregis.” See especially pp. 168, 184, 204, 214. See also B. Reardon, Roman Catholic Modernism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970).

35. Lenin, “Marksizm i revizionizm,” (1908) in PSS 17:25. Leninskii sbornik (1924), 1:90–96.

36. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia (Moscow, 1957) 6:272, 722n.

37. G. Plekhanov, Osnovye voprosy Marksizma (St. Petersburg, 1908), 125, 143.

38. G. Plekhanov, “Materialismus militans: otvet g. Bogdanovu,” in Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia 3:202–301. Originally published in Golos sotsial-demokrata, nos. 6–7 (May-June 1908): nos. 8–9 (June-July 1908); and in Plekhanov’s Ot oborony k napadeniiu (St. Petersburg, 1910), 208–9, 224.

39. Plekhanov, “Materialismus militans,” 231, 235, 261.

40. Plekhanov to Axelrod and Martynov, October 5, 1908, in his Sochineniia 19:vi, n. 1.

41. Lenin, Khronika 2:410—416.

42. Lenin, Sochineniia (1935), 28:546. Lenin, PSS 55:252.

43. Lenin, PSS 55:250–251. I. Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Kavkazskie druz’ia Ilicha (Tiflis, 1974), 105.

44. Perepiska sem’i Ulianovykh 1883–1917 (Moscow: Izd. pol. lit., 1969), 176–179.

45. Lenin, PSS 55:255–261. Perepiska Ulianovykh, 184—186. Voprosy istorii KPSS 5 (1969): 46.

46. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii (1958), 43.

47. Lenin, PSS 55:262–268.

48. “Tsenzura,” in Bol’shaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia (Moscow, 1934), 60:472. Lenin, Perepiska Ulianovykh, 194—195.

49. Lenin, PSS 55:280, 282, 289. Lenin, Perepiska Ulianovykh, pp. 199–201. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 5 (1969): 44. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:194.

50. Lenin, PSS 55:291. J. Scherrer, “Ein gelber und ein blauer Teufel. Zur Entstehung der Begriffe ‘bogostroitel’stvo’ und ‘bogoiskatel’stvo’,” Forschungen zur osteuropaischen Geschichte 25 (1978): 327–328.

51. R. Florence, Fritz: The Story of a Political Assassin (New York: Dial Press, 1971), 43.

52. Lenin, “Materialism and Empiriocriticism,” in Collected Works (Moscow, 1972), 14:22, 66, 186, 218.

53. Ibid., 98, 292, 345.

54. Lenin, Materialism and Empiriocriticism (London, 1948), 10, 36, 48.

55. Ibid., 115, 122, 150.

56. Ibid., 220–221, 232, 234.

57. Ibid., 234, 252–253, 264, 273.

58. Ibid., 342, 353.

59. A. Bogdanov, Vera i nauka (o knige V. ll’ina) (Moscow, 1910), 146, 152, 159.

60. Ibid., 183, 186, 189, 191, 194.

61. Ibid., 211, 221, 222.

62. KPSS v resoliutsiakh (Moscow, 1954), 1:205. Kretov, Bor’ba, 23–24, 100.

63. P. V. Barchugov, Soveshchanie rasshirennoi redaktsii “Proletariia” (Moscow: Gospolizdat, 1961), 36. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 137. Lenin, “Ne po doroge,” Proletarii, no. 42 (February 25, 1909), pp. 6–7. Lenin, Perepiska Ulianovykh, 191–192.

64. International Review of Social History 3 (1967): 438. F. Adler, “Wozu brauchen wir Theorien?” Der Kampf (March 1909): 256–263. Kautsky to Axelrod, March 20, 1909, Axelrod Archive, International Institute for Social History, Amsterdam.

65. M. Pokrovsky, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, 1966), 1:14—15.

66. Stalin to M. Toroshelidze, spring 1909, cited in Dubinsky-Mukhadze, Shaumian, 156.

67. Lenin, PSS 47:180, 284–285. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 125–126. Lenin, PSS 17:415–426.

68. P. Mazgai, The Action Française and Revolutionary Syndicalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979), 110–115.

69. Prokofiev, Dubrovinskii, 202. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 129–138. KPSS v rezoliutsiakh (Moscow, 1954), 1:219–229. Bogdanov letter of June 26, 1909, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

70. Kretov, Bor’ba, 135–136. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 141–142. Kremnev, Krasin, 163.

71. Paris Okhrana, report no. 336, June 26, 1909, box XVlb, folder 6a, Okhrana Archive.

8. Bolshevism without Lenin: Collectivism and the Capri School

1. Proletarii, (June 16 and June 24, 1909). Plekhanov, Sochineniia 19:vii. Perepiska Ulianovykh, 205–206.

2. Fond dokumentov V. I. Lenina (Moscow: Izd. pol. lit., 1970), 50, on the Kuklin Library. Lenin, PSS 47:286–287, and 19:52—57. Burenin told the story of the attempt to kidnap Nicholas II in Burenin, Pamiatnyegody, 266–270. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 139. Leninskii sbomik (1933), 25:35–36.

3. Leninskii sbornik (1933), 15:38–41. Lenin, “O fraktsii storonnikov otzovizma i bogostroitel’stva,” Proletarii, nos. 47–48 (September 24, 1909). Lenin to Karpinsky, October 1909, Leninskii sbornik 13:173.

4. “Beseda s peterburgskimi bol’shevikami,” Proletarii, no. 49 (October 16, 1909): 5–7. The comments of Martov and Ortodoks-Axelrod appeared in the Menshevik collection of essays Na rubezhe (St. Petersburg, 1909), 9–10, 35–36, 262.

5. G. Plekhanov, “O tak nazyvaemykh religioznykh iskaniiakh v Rossii,” in his Izbrannye filosofskie proizvedeniia 3:326–437, especially pp. 329, 371, 380, 383, 385, 392, 394, 434.

6. Scherrer and Haupt, “Gor’kij, Bogdanov, Lenin,” 327. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:185–186.

7. L. Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), 172, 184. E. Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe (London, 1913), 12, 156, 245.

8. Winwood Reade, The Martyrdom of Man (1872; reprint, London: Pemberton, 1968), 437. W. Wolfe, From Radicalism to Socialism: Men and Ideas in the Formation of Fabian Socialist Doctrine 1881–1889 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 236, 272, 276.

9. E. Bax, The Ethic of Socialism (1889; reprint, London, 1907), 18, 21–22. E. Bellamy, The Religion of Solidarity (1874; reprint, Yellow Springs, Ohio: Antioch Bookplate Co., 1940), 31–32, 41.

10. Krizis teatra: sbornik statei (Moscow, 1908), 172, 179, 185. V. Bazarov, “Lichnost’ i liubov v svete novago religioznago soznaniia,” in Literatumyi raspad (St. Petersburg, 1908), 1:229–230.

11. M. Gorky, “O tsinizme,” in Stat’i 1905–1916 gg. (Petrograd, 1918), 71, 74–75.

12. M. Gorky, “Razrushenie lichnosti,” in Ocherki filosofii kollektivizma: sbornik pervyi (St. Petersburg: Znanie, 1909), 357, 396.

13. Literatumyi raspad 1:155, 172, 230. Ibid., 2:87–88, 118.

14. A. Lunacharsky, Religiia i sotsializm, 2 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1908 and 1911), 1:26, 45, 227, 371, 385.

15. Ocherki filosofii kollektivizma, 5, 23, 29, 54, 127, 133.

16. Ibid., 240, 254, 307–308, 323, 326.

17. S. Volsky, Filosofiia bor’by: opyt postroeniia etiki Marksizma (Moscow: Slovo, 1909), 10, 86, 123, 248, 287, 300, 310.

18. Paris Okhrana, report dated January 16, 1909, box XXVb, folder 1; also report no. 6 dated the same day, box XVIIa, folder 2, Okhrana Archive. N. Volsky, “Vilonov—Leninets ran’she Lenina,” box 164, file 1, folder 3a, Nicolaevsky Collection. St. Volsky, Encounters, 119. See also Gorky’s account of Vilonov in Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow, 1952), 17:82–91.

19. Volsky to David Shub, June 26, 1946, David Shub Papers, Yale University. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,”, 41–42.

20. Gorky to Bogdanov, March 1909, in Scherrer and Haupt, “Gor’kij, Bogdanov, Lenin,” 324.

21. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:190–191.

22. Ibid. 14:126, 128.

23. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 44, 43. Bogdanov to the editorial board of Proletarii, April 11, 1909, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

24. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 43–46. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 7:192–193, and 14:48–49. Bogdanov to the Capri School, June 1, 1909, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

25. Trotsky to Gorky, June 9 and 20, 1909, box 2, Alexinsky Collection. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 46—48. The Capri School students were as follows:

26. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 50–53, 64. Kretov, Bor’ba, 142. Kniazeva, Bor’ba, 141.

27. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 55–57, 64. V. Kosarev, “Partiinaia shkola na ostrove Kapri,” in 25 Let RKP(b) 1898–1923 (Moscow, 1923), 152–162. Okhrana intercept of a Capri School student, Starover, dated August 10, 1909, box XXIVj, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. On the Capri School, see also box 4, Alexinsky Collection.

28. Trotsky to Capri School, August 6, 1909, and S. Semkovsky to the School, August 31, 1909, box 2, Alexinsky Collection. Andreeva, Perepiska, 618. Letters of V. A. Stoliarov (August 10, 1909) and V. Arbatsky (September 12, 1909), boxes XIVi and XlVj, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

29. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 55–57. Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:37, 43–44. I. F. Dubrovinsky to the Capri School, September 3, 1909, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

30. Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:45–47. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 64—69. Sofia Shavdia to V. K. Shavdia, intercepted letter, October 22, 1909, box XVIIb, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

31. Andreeva, Perepiska, 171–172. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii, 44–46. Bogdanov to the Capri School council, December 8, 1909, box 1, and the council’s reply, box 6, Alexinsky Collection.

32. Lifshits, “Kapriiskaia shkola,” 71. Lenin, PSS 19:190–191. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii, 47—48. Paris Okhrana, report no. 623, December 4, 1909, box XIV, folder 2, and report no. 656, December 17, 1909, box XVIIa, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

33. Kretov, Bor’ba, 157–158. Lenin v bor’be, 158–160. A. Pannekoek, Die taktischen Differenzen in der Arbeiterbewegung (Hamburg, 1909), 26, 104, 121. H. Gorter, Sociaal-Demokratie en Rivisionisme (Amsterdam, 1909), 27.

34. Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:54—55.

35. KPSS v rezoliutsiakh (1970), 288–299. Kretov, Bor’ba, 169.

36. L. Martov, Spasiteli ili uprazniteli (Paris, 1910), 22, 32–33. Volsky, “Kak Lenin zhil”, 77.

37. Lenin, PSS 55:306. Leninskii sbornik (1975), 38:57.

38. “Delo Viktora,” box 7, Alexinsky Collection. Martov, 16-page brief to the party court dated june 1910, box 17, file 1, folder 13, Nicolaevsky Collection. L.Kamenev, Dve partii, appendixes 15 and 17. R. C. Elwood, Roman Malinovsky: A Life without a Cause (Newtonville, Mass: Oriental Research Partners, 1977), 33.

39. Stalin to Vel’tman, Paris, Okhrana intercept, December 31, 1910, box XVIIu, folder 1, Okhrana Archive.

40. Stalin to V. S. Bobrovsky, Moscow, January 24, 1911, Okhrana intercept, box XVIIu, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. K. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered’ (1909–1917 gg.),” Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, no. 6 (1924): 198.

41. Volsky, “Kak Lenin zhil,” 42. Bogdanov to the RSDRP central committee, January 27, 1910, box 1, Alexinsky Collection. N. Nelidov and P. Barchugov, Leninskaia shkola v Lonzhiumo (Moscow, 1967), 22, 26. Lenin, Sochineniia (1935), 18:554, 559–560. Lenin to Vilonov, March 27, 1910, Leninskii sbornik 13:174—175. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii (1958), 51–53. Paris Okhrana, report no. 220, March 24, 1910, box XVIIa, folder la, Okhrana Archive.

42. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered,’” 202. Kretov, Bor’ba, 176.

43. Lunacharsky in “Proletarskoe znamia,” nos. 2–3 (May-June 1910), 4. V. Anisimov to Lenin, May 8, 1910, Okhrana intercept, box XVIIa, folder la, Okhrana Archive. Grille, Lenins Rivale, 37. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered,’ “ 205.

44. A. Bogdanov, Sovremennoe polozhenie i zadachi partii: platforma, vyrabotannaia gruppoi bol’shevikov (Paris: Izd. gruppa Vpered, 1911), 2–3, 7, 13, 15–17, 28, 32.

45. Lenin, PSS 16:177–204. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered,’” 202. Vpered, no. 1 (July 1910): 9, 34, 38, 60–62; also no. 2 (August 1910): 72–82.

46. A. Bogdanov, Padenie velikago fetishizma (sovremennyi krizis ideologii) (Moscow: Dorovatovsky and Charushnikov, 1910), 41, 100, 109, 126–127.

47. V. Bazarov, Na dva fronta (St. Petersburg: Prometii, 1910), xxii, xxvi, xxix, 98, 198. M. Liadov, Po povodu partiinago krizisa: chastnoe zaiavlenie (Paris: Vpered, 1911), 10–16.

48. S. Lifshits, “Partiinaia shkola v Bolon’e (1910–1911 gg.),” Proletarskaia revoliutsiia, 6 (1924): 109–144. Volsky, “Kak Lenin zhil,” 51. Paris Okhrana, report no. 1ll, December 15, 1910, box XXIVj, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

49. Otchet vtoroi vysshei sotsial-demokraticheskoi propagandistsko-agitatorskoi shkoly dlia rabochikh Noiabr 1910-Mart’ 1911 g. (Paris, 1911), 8–9.

50. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 29:142. A. V. Lunacharsky, Revolutionary Silhouettes (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), 63. Otchet, 11–12. Bogdanov to Mark Andreevich, November 12, 1910, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

51. Roth, Sorel, 44. Le Mouvement Socialiste (March 1911), 184—185. Roberts, Syndicalism, 83. Otchet, 16–17, 25–26.

52. T. Gladkov and M. Smirnov, Menzhinskii (Moscow, 1969), 124—125. Otchet, 14—16.

53. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii 29:104.

54. Andreeva, Perepiska, 173, 176.

55. Gorky to Bogdanov, March 20, 1910, in N. Trifonov, “A. V. Lunacharskii i M. Gor’kii,” in K. D. Muratova, ed., M. Gor’kii i ego sovremenniki (Leningrad: Nauka, 1968), 145.

56. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii (1958), 54—57. Arkhiv Gor’kogo 14:335–336. Gorky, Sobranie sochinenii, 61–62, 65—66.

57. Fond dokumentov V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1970), 37–38. Bialik, Lenin i Gorkii (1958), 61–66.

58. Plekhanov in Dnevnik sotsial-demokrata 9 (August 1909): 16–17.

59. Ibid. 10 (February 1910): 4, 35, 40, and 12 (June 1910): 29.

60. Plekhanov, Izbrannye filosofskye proizvedeniia, third letter in his “Materialismus Militans” series, 3:263, 300. Plekhanov, Anarkhizm i sotsializm, 3d ed. (Berlin, 1911), in his Sochineniia 16:192–196. On the Socialist Revolutionary view see “Krizis Bol’shevizma,” in Znamia truda, 23–24 (December 1909), reprinted with Lenin’s annotations in Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:193–202.

9. Lenin without Bolshevism: Russian Politics and German Money

1. The most complete account of Bolshevik finances before 1914 may be found in Dietrich Geyer, ed., Kautskys Russisches Dossier:Deutsche Sozialdemokraten als Treuhänder des russischen Parteivermögens 1910–1915 (Frankfurt and N.Y.: Campus Verlag, 1981). Geyer also distinguishes (p. 7) between Bolsheviks and Leninists. Lenin to the trustees, February-March 1910, Leninskii sbornik (1933), 25:55–58. Volsky to Alexinsky, 1911, box 2, Alexinsky Collection. D. Gol’dendakh to Kautsky, February 17, 1911, in Geyer, Kautskys Russisches Dossier, 291.

2. Otchet, 26–31. Vpered, 2 (February 1911): 69. Also 3 (May 1911): 78. F. I. Kalinin to Alexinsky, May 16, 1911, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

3. Nelidov and Barchugov, Leninskaia shkola, 52, 56, 63–64. Kalinin to Alexinsky, July 4 and 7, 1911, box 1, Alexinsky Collection, Ya. Master (Strauyan) to Alexinsky, July 13, 1911, box 2, Alexinsky Collection.

4. Kalinin to Alexinsky, June 28, 1911, box 1, Alexinsky Collection. Listok zagranichnago Biuro Tsentral’nogo komiteta, no. 1 (September 8, 1911), pp. 3—4. Longjumeau student to the Vpered group, August 1911, box 6, Alexinsky Collection. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered,’ “ 207–210 (Kautsky-Lunacharsky letters). R. Luxemburg, Briefe an Karl und Luise Kautsky (Berlin, 1923), 162–163.

5. Listok, 3–4; RSDRP central committee to Vpered, September 8, 1911. Paris Okhrana, report dated August 4, 1911, box XXIVj, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. Kalinin to Alexinsky, October 1911, box 1, Alexinsky Collection.

6. Kalinin to Bogdanov, December 3, 1911, box 1, and Manuilsky to Alexinsky, late 1911, box 2, Alexinsky Collection. L. Kamenev, Mezhdu dvumia revoliutsiami (Moscow, 1923), 267–279.

7. Zeman and Scharlau, Parvus, 124. Lenin to M. G. Filia, January 19, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:38.

8. S. Bronner, ed., The Letters of Rosa Luxemburg (Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1978), 141–142. Lenin to Zinoviev, June 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:39—41. Axelrod to Kautsky, June 5, 1911, box 16, file 2, folder 41, Nicolaevsky Collection. Lenin to Kautsky, June 6, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:41—42. Leninskii sbornik 38:97 n. 3.

9. Lenin to Zgraggen, February 26, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:54. Lenin to Zetkin, July 5, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:43. Leo Jogisches to Kautsky, July 10, 1911, fond G4 (Russenfond), International Institute for Social History, Amsterdam, cited in J. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg (London: Oxford, 1966), 2:580. Luxemburg to Luise Kautsky, July 1911, Luxemburg, Briefe, 159–160.

10. Geyer, Kautskys Russisches Dossier, 321–322. Zetkin to Lenin, July 14, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:117 n. 1. Listok, 7. Ascher, Paul Axelrod, 287.

11. Zetkin to Kautsky, October 10, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:40—41.

12. L. Haas, C. V. Moor (Zurich: Bensiger Verlag, 1970), 87–89, 94, 96–97, 125–126.

13. Lenin to Zetkin, October 30, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:46; Lenin to Zetkin, November 16, 1911, ibid., 48–49; Zetkin to Taratuta, November 16, 1911, ibid., 56.

14. Leninskii sbornik 38:50 n. 5, referring to letter from Kautsky and Zetkin to Lenin, November 18, 1911.

15. Ordzhonikidze letter to “comrades in Russia,” November 1911, cited in Volsky, “Kak Lenin zhil,” 79. Ordzhonikidze to Zetkin, November 22, 1911, Leninskii sbornik 38:51. Lenin, PSS 21:34—36. Okhrana, report no. 1597, December 13, 1911, box XVIIa, folder 2, Okhrana Archive.

16. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions 1:146–150. Elwood, Malinovsky, 26–27, 34.

17. Leninskii sbornik 38:52. KPSS v rezoliutsiakh, 343.

18. Kamo affidavit on expropriations, November 5, 1911, box 4, Alexinsky Collection. Shaumian, Kamo, 178. Okhrana, report no. 1722, January 13, 1912, box XXVIIc, folder 1, Okhrana Archive. Bogdanov to Ian Strauian (Master), January 8, 1912, box 1, Alexinsky Collection. Mogilevsky, Nikitich, 78.

19. Schapiro, Communist Party, 129. Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten, 94–95. Lenin to Zgraggen, February 26, 1912, Leninskii sbornik 38:53–55. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions 1:158.

20. Lenin to Gorky, February 1912, Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii (1958), 69. Lenin to Gorky, September 15, 1911, ibid., 67–68.

21. Vpered circular to the RSDRP, 1912, box 5, Alexinsky Collection.

22. Lenin’s letters to de la Haille of May and June 10, 1912, Leninskii sbornik 38:57–65.

23. Bogdanov to the Vpered group, June 25, 1912, box 1; M. Merkel to Vpered, June 2 and July 5, 1912, box 2; varia from June 1912, box 4; Golos Sotsial-demokrata to Zetkin, June 21, 1912, box 5, Alexinsky Collection. Also intercepted letter from a Menshevik, June 21, 1912, box XVIIa, folder IB, Okhrana Archive.

24. Lenin, PSS 21:407—409. Lenin’s July 23, 1912, summary of the Schmidt inheritance case, in Leninskii sbornik 38:66–71.

25. Trotsky to Vpered, February 26, 1911 and July 26, 1912, box 2; Trotsky to Alexinsky, May 13, 1912, box 5, Alexinsky Collection. Elwood, Resolutions and Decisions 1:159–167.

26. Lenin to Haille, September 23, 1912 and Lenin to Kamenev, December 26, 1912,Leninskii sbornik 38:74—77. Lenin to M. A. Ulianova, December 21, 1912, Lenin, PSS 55:330–331. Axelrod to Kautsky, September 6, 1912, box 16, file 2, folder 41, Nicolaevsky Collection. Huysmans to Lenin, September 10, 1912, Huysmans, Correspondance, 117. Elwood, Malinovska, 28–31.

27. Lenin to Gorky, early January 1913, Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii.

28. Grille, Lenins Rivale, 166–167. Gorky to Alexinsky, 1912, n.d., box 3, Alexinsky Collection. A. Bogdanov, Inzhener Menni: fantasticheskii roman, 3d ed. (Petrograd, 1918), 29, 43, 115. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii, 81—82, 87–88.

29. Vpered materials for February 1912, box 8, Alexinsky Colelction. Lenin to Gorky, February 1913, Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii, 94. Lenin to Pravda, February 14, 1913, box XVIIIa, folder 3, Okhrana Archive.

30. G. Swain, “Bolsheviks and Metal Workers on the Eve of the First World War,” Journal of Modern History 16, no. 2 (April 1981): 273–292. Lenin to N. G. Poletaev, February 25, 1913, box XVIIa, folder 3, Okhrana Archive.

31. Pravda, no. 87 (April 27, 1913): 5; no. 97 (May 11, 1913): 2; no. 102 (May 18, 1913): 3. Part of Bogdanov’s series on a “dictionary of foreign words,” where he used an old Russian Aesopian tradition of dictionary definitions of political terminology. Lenin to Pravda, late May 1913, Leninskii sbornik 25:334—335. Krupskaya to M. N. Kovaleva, April 2, 1913, box XVIIa, folder 3, Okhrana Archive.

32. Kalinin to Vpered, June 2, 1913, box 1, Alexinsky Collection. Ostroukhova, “Gruppa ‘Vpered,’” 213. Grille, Lenins Rivale, 168. Lenin, PSS 23:246–247. Leninskii sbornik 25:336–340.

33. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii 105–112. Vpered circular of January 18, 1914, in Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:631. Brachmann, Russische Sozialdemokraten, 116. Archiv Gor’kogo 19:359–360.

34. Elwood, Malinovsky, 32–33, 52–57.

35. Lenin correspondence on the trustees, 1913, Leninskii sbornik 38:82–84, 94—97, 103–106, 108–109. Haille to Zetkin, August 22, 1913, box 16, file 3, folder 52, Nicolaevsky Collection.

36. Lenin to G. L. Shklovsky, September 1913, Leninskii sbornik 38:111–114. Heinemann to Zetkin, November 26, 1913, box 2, Alexinsky Collection. Chicherin to Vpered, December 8, 1913, box 1, Alexinsky Collection. Zetkin to Haille (September 13, 1913) and to Axelrod (September 13 and November 11, 1913), S. Semkovsky to Zetkin, October 21, 1913, box 16, file 3, folder 52, Nicolaevsky Collection.

37. Lenin correspondence with de la Haille and Shklovsky, winter 1913–1914, Leninskii sbornik 38:126–138.

38. Lenin, PSS 25:460 and 48:352. R. Elwood, “Lenin and the Brussels ‘Unity’ Conference of July 1912,” Russian Review 39, no. 1 (January 1980): 32—49. Shub, Lenin, 154—155. Schapiro, Communist Party, 138. Alexinsky, “Vospominaniia,” 205. RSDRP letter to Huysmans, March 31, 1914, box 16, file 3, folder 66, Nicolaevsky Collection.

39. A. N. Chkhenkeli to S. Semkovsky, July 7, 1914, box 2, folder 119, Okhrana Archive.

40. Shub, Lenin, 153–154.

41. Senn, Switzerland, 44, 76–80. Zeman and Scharlau, Parvus, 157–158, 162. Vpered, no. 1 (August 25, 1915): 1–3.

42. Senn, Switzerland, 89–102, 108–109, 119–120. Lenin to the International Socialist Commission, September 1915, Leninskii sbornik 38:169–170. Haas, Moor, 128.

43. Lenin, PSS 27:520–521 n. 123; 49:245, 256–259; 55:517 n. 342.

44. Lenin, PSS 49:245–259, 285, 299–302; 55:517 n. 342. Bialik, Lenin i Gor’kii (1958), 188–189.

45. Lenin, PSS 49:340–344, 351.

46. Lunacharsky’s correspondence of spring 1917 in Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:636–642.

47. A. Bogdanov, l-oe Maia: mezhdunarodnyi prazdnik truda (Petrograd, 1917), 9–13. A. Rabinowitch, Prelude to Revolution: The Petrograd Bolsheviks and the July 1917 Uprising (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968), 66, 83. Lenin, Gosudarstvo i revoliutsiia, in PSS 33:80, 97.

48. Lenin, “Derzhat li Bol’sheviki gosudarstvennyi vlast’?” (1917), in PSS 34:306.

10. A Childhood Disease: Communism over Syndicalism

1. On syndicalism and Bolshevism after 1917 see especially V. I. Lenin, “Detskaia bolezn’ “levizny” v kommunisme,” PSS 41:1–104; H. M. Bock, Syndikalismus und Linkskommunismus von 1918–1923 (Meisenheim am Glan: Verlag Anton Hain, 1969); T. Draper, The Roots of American Communism (New York: Viking, 1957); J. W. Hulse, The Forming of the Communist International (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964); F. Borkenau, World Communism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962); B. Lazitch and M. Drachkovitch, Lenin and the Comintern (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1972); N. G. Sevriugina and N. N. Surovtseva, “Iz istorii sozdaniia V. 1. Leninym knigi ‘Detskaia bolezn’ “levizny” v kommunizme,” Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 3 (I960), 9–24.

2. Karl Kautsky, The Class Struggle (The Erfurt Program) (1892), trans. W. E. Bohn (New York: Norton, 1971), 198. Ulam, The Bolsheviks, 266–267. Lunacharsky’s letter to his wife is dated August 20, 1907, and may be found in Literaturnoe nasledstvo 80:623–625.

3. Lenin, PSS 36:283–314; 41:13, 39–49. Bock, Syndikalismus, 189.

4. Sorel, Reflections on Violence, 279.

5. “Resolutions of the First Congress of the Communist International,” Communist International, no. 1 (April 1919): 52.

6. Communist International, no. 4 (August 1919): 120. Solidarity, September 17, 1919. Industrial Worker, October 30, 1920, p. 1.

7. V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, Izbrannye sochineniia (Moscow, 1963), 3:404. Communist International, no. 5 (September 1919): 51–52. Ibid., no. 6 (October 1919): 895–900.

8. P. Avrich, The Russian Anarchists (New York: Norton, 1978), 226–227. Lenin, PSS 41:621. Jack Roth, The Cult of Violence, 151. S. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Vintage, 1975), 87–106. R. V. Daniels, Conscience of the Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), 126. R. Drinnon, Rebel in Paradise: A Biography of Emma Goldman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 234–235.

9. Lenin, PSS 41:13, 39–49.

10. Ibid. 40:325, 408.

11. Sevriugina and Surovtseva, “Iz istorii,” 16.

12. N. Bukharin and M. Albert, “Resolutions of the First Congress of the Communist International,” Communist International, no. 1 (April 1919): 52. Rutgers’ comment appeared in the same journal in no. 4 (August 1919): 120.

13. Hulse, Forming, 156. Draper, Roots, 232–236. Bock, Syndikalismus, 188ff.

14. G. Zinoviev, “An Appeal of the Executive Committee of the Third International at Moscow,” The One Big Union Monthly 2, no. 9 (September 1920): 26–30. Hulse, Forming, 162. Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin, 250–252.

15. M. Dubovsky, We Shall Be All: A History of the IWW (New York: Quadrangle, 1969), 135—141.

16. Bock, Syndikalismus, 253–254. Sevriugina and Surovtseva, “Iz istorii,” 21–22.

17. Leninskii sbornik 37:203. Lenin, PSS 41:17–18, 94.

18. G. Zinoviev, “Pressing Questions of the International Labor Movement,” Communist International, nos. 11–12 (June-July 1920): 2112–2134.

19. Leninskii sbornik 35:122–123; 37:215; Lenin, PSS 41:621, 626, 629.

20. Sevriugina and Surovtseva, “Iz istorii,” 20. Lenin, PSS 41:104, 643, and 51:217–218, 242.

21. The Friis interview, published in Die Rote Fahne on June 5, 1920, is in Leninskii sbornik 37:212–213. The executive committee thesis appeared in Communist International, nos. 11–12 (June-July 1920): 2140.

22. Trotsky’s comments appeared in Ibid., 2212, and no. 13 (August 1920): 58.

23. G. Zinoviev, “What the Communist International Has Been up to Now and What It Must Become,” Communist International, nos. 11–12 (June-July 1920): 2247–2262 and no. 13 (August 1920): 45–46.

24. Charles Ashleigh, “Third International,” Solidarity, August 21, 1920, p. 2. G. Andreytchine, “Where Are We Going?,” The One Big Union Monthly 2, no. 10 (October 1920): 25–27. M. Kaminev, “Radek-alismus Children Sicken of Communism,” The One Big Union Monthly 2, no. 12 (December 1920): 24—28.

25. In Left-Wing Communism, as in Materialism and Empiriocriticism, Lenin makes few direct references to syndicalism. He did briefly note the need for a struggle against “a certain section of the Industrial Workers of the World and anarcho-syndicalist trends” in America, and against “former syndicalists” in France. Lenin, PSS 41:75–76.

26. A. M. Gorky, Letopis’ zhizni i tvorchestvo A. M. Gor’kogo, (Moscow, 1959), 3:178, 193, 195. A. Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin (New York: Harper and Row, 1981), 5.

27. A. Bogdanov, Uroki pervykh shagov revoliutsii (Moscow, 1917), 14.

28. A. Bogdanov, Nauka i rabochii klass (Moscow, 1918), 4, 15. Also his Elementy proletarskoi kultury i razvitii rabochego klassa (Moscow, 1920), 12, 50.

29. A. Bogdanov, Filosoftia zhivogo opyta: populiarnye ocherki (Moscow, 1920), 15–16. See also Bogdanov et al., Teoriia otnositel’nosti Einshteina i ee ftlosofskoe tolkovaniia (Moscow: Mir, 1923).

30. R. V. Daniels, Conscience of the Revolution, 119–171.

31. V. I. Lenin, “The Party Crisis,” Pravda, no. 13 (January 21, 1921), in PSS 42:234–244.

32. Lenin, PSS 42:245–255, speech to the Second All-Russian Congress of Miners, January 23, 1921.

Also his January 25 article “Once Again on the Trade Unions and the Current Situation and the Mistakes of Trotsky and Bukharin,” PSS 42:264–304.

33. Lenin, PSS 43:93–97.

34. Lenin, “Report on Party Unity and the Anarcho-Syndicalist Deviation,” Pravda, no. 68 (March 30, 1921), in PSS 43:98–106.

11. Conclusion: Lenin over Bolshevism

1. Evgenii Zamiatin, We, trans. G. Zilboorg (New York: Dutton, 1924), 127, 173.

2. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! p. 197. P. Avrich, “Bolshevik Opposition to Lenin: G. T. Miasnikov and the Workers’ Group,” Russian Review 43 (1984): 1–29.

3. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge, 202. B. Mogilevsky, Nikitich, 110.

4. Robert Tucker, “Stalinism versus Bolshevism: A Reconsideration,” Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Occasional Paper no. 169 (Washington, D.C., 1982), pp. 9, 16, 19. On the concept of totalitarianism, see A. Gleason, “‘Totalitarianism’ in 1984,” Russian Review 43, no. 2 (April 1984): 145–159.

5. L. Gumplowicz, Die sociologische Staatsidee (Innsbruck: Wagner’schen Universitats, 1902), 211.

6. A. J. Gregor, Contemporary Radical Ideologies: Totalitarian Thought in the Twentieth Century (New York: Random House, 1967), 129.