“The Science of Vocal Pedagogy”
Kinesiologic Analysis of Speech
Sounds in Singing
In 1918 Daniel Jones published his significant work, An Outline of English Phonetics, in which he devised a standard set of vowels to be used as points of reference for all phonetic transcription. These vowels are unlike the vowels of any language and are somewhat evenly spaced acoustically (Fig. 108). They have as their physiological basis specific tongue positions. Only the vowels at each corner of the diagram can rightly be called cardinal, however, for only these have specific tongue positions that assure accurate reproduction.1
The [i] is made with the tongue as high and as far front as possible without interrupting the sound, the [a] is made with the tongue as low and as far front as possible, the [ɑ] is made with the tongue as low and as far back as possible, and the [u] is made with the tongue as high and as far back as possible.
The remaining four vowels termed cardinal—[e],[ε], [ɔ], and [o]— are made by accurately moving the tongue. For the frontal vowels, the tongue is moved downward one third of the vertical distance from the frontal [i] position toward [a] to obtain the vowel [e], two thirds of the vertical distance from [i] to [a] to obtain the vowel [ε]. For the back vowels, the tongue is moved downward one third of the vertical distance from the high back [u] to [ɑ] to produce [o], two thirds of the vertical distance downward toward [ɑ] to produce [ɔ]. To reproduce these vowels requires practice in imitating each vowel sound from a record as they are recorded by Jones.2 Anyone using these vowels must depend upon the ear for careful discrimination of [e], [ε], [ɔ], and [o], in which the tongue positions guide the speaker to the cardinal [i], [a], [ɑ], and [u].
The cardinal vowels are theoretic vowels, and the concept of specific tongue positions as well as specific acoustical points have long proved valuable as teaching tools since the mental image of the tongue position has to be corrected in practice by the ear. They are also indispensable as reference points in examining dialects and in organizing unwritten tribal sounds into a written language. Fig. 109 is a vowel diagram used by Jones3 in showing the acoustic position of English vowels in relation to the Jones cardinal vowels.
Fig. 108. The Cardinal Vowels
Spectrograms of the cardinal vowels as recorded by Daniel Jones reveal their acoustical positions as shown in the above chart. Although Dr. Jones suggests that they are equidistant acoustically, analysis does not prove this to be true.
The cardinal vowels could be used as a basis for the sung vowel but for two reasons:
1. They are not musically acceptable as a model for imitation by students as a properly produced vocalic sound.
2.They are based upon tongue and jaw positions designed for speech sounds and do not have the cavity adjustment necessary for an acceptable sung sound.
The basic vowels and their quality alternate vowels are conceptually similar to the Jones cardinal vowels. It is hoped that the basic vowels will prove to be as useful a teaching tool for singing as the Jones vowels have proved to be for speech.
Fig. 109. Diagram Illustrating English Vowels
The tongue position of the English Vowels compared with those of the cardinal vowels. (The circles indicate the position of the highest point of the tongue; cardinal vowels are black, English vowels, an open circle.) Source: Daniel Jones, An English Pronouncing Dictionary (New York: E. P. Dutton Co., 1926).
METHODS FOR EXAMINING THE WORD IN SONG
Vowels and consonants may be identified in the singing tone by three methods—acoustic, position, and movement.
Acoustic Method
The acoustic method of identifying words considers the manner in which the speech sound is heard and describes the vowel in such auditory terms as high pitch, low pitch; stressed, unstressed; long, short; weak or strong.
Speech sounds possess a quality interpreted as tones or noises. Vowels are considered tonal because their spectra consist of regular vibrations; consonants are considered noises because their spectra consist of irregular vibrations. Vowels also possess a degree of sonority that enables us to identify them and use them in a musical situation. The most sonorous vowel is the vowel [ɑ], which has an uninterrupted flow of sound through the resonating system. As lip-rounding is used to produce the back vowels [ɔ], [o], and [u], and lip-spreading is used to produce the frontal vowels [ӕ], [e], and [i], thereby, the sonority is decreased.
Some consonants—such as the nasals [m], [n], and [η]; the glides [w] and [r]; and the liquid [1]—possess a degree of sonority. The degree of interruption of the sound is obvious. Other consonants are considered to be noise; they are voiced and unvoiced. Their names imply the degree of friction employed in their production by lips, tongue, or velum. They are fricatives such as [f], [θ], and [ഽ]; affricates such as [ts] and [d3]; plosives such as [p], [t], and [k]; and nasals such as [n], [1], and [ɳ].
In singing, the noises and tones of speech sounds are super-imposed upon a pitch pattern that affects not only the efficient musical production of the sound and its meaning, but also its sonority and its intelligibility.
Analysis by Position
This method considers all speech sounds in song by position of the articulatory mechanism at the time of phonation. Such a study involves a knowledge of anatomy to determine the structure of the speech mechanism and its function in making a particular sound.
For many years phonetics has been based upon the position of the tongue during phonation. Such terms as frontal, back, and central apply to both the tongue position and to the group of vowels (Fig. 110).
Fig. 110. Vowel Diagram
For consonants, the terms bilabial, labial-dental, dental, alveolar, retroflex, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal, and so forth are used to indicate positions of the tongue and lips during articulation.
Analysis by Movement
This method considers the movements that are necessary to arrive at a particular speech sound. Continuant, stop, and glide are typical terms. The analysis of intervowel glides and sounds in combination within communicative speech where duration of each sound is slight is a useful approach.
SYNTHESIS OF TWO METHODS OF ANALYSIS
In this volume the acoustic, the position, and the movement methods are combined in analyzing and describing illustrative materials. Physiological terminology is used as indicated in Fig. 111 and in the listings of terms beginning on page 253. The meaning of acoustic terms used is self-evident. For example, if the phoneme [k] is identified as voiceless, lingua-velar, and stop plosive, the identification has simply described the manner in which the consonant is made:
1. Voiceless—in that there is no laryngeal vibration, only frictional sound (acoustic approach).
2. Lingua-velar—because the dorsum of the tongue makes contact at the velar ridge (position approach).
3. Stop plosive—because escaping air, suddenly released, causes a plosive sound (acoustic approach).
If the phoneme [3] is identified as a voiced, linguapalatal, fricative, continuant, the manner in which the sound is made has been described:
1. Voiced—because the vocal folds are vibrating.
2. Linguapalatal—because the tip of the togue makes contact with the prepalatal area at the alveolar ridge.
3. Fricative—because identification of the sound depends upon its friction characteristics.
4. Continuant—because the sound is not interrupted but maintains its identity for the duration of the utterance.
In the following kinesiologic analysis each phoneme will be identified by type. This term indicates the positions of the articulators. Vowels will be identified by the positions of the tongue, the degree of jaw opening, and the position of the lips; e.g., the basic vowel [i] would be listed as high front, close, spread, and the rounded frontal vowel [œ] as mid-front, half-open, rounded.
Consonants
Since consonants are interruptions of the vowels at points of stricture in the phonatory tract, they are identified by absence or presence of laryngeal vibration, by point of stricture, and by duration. For example, the consonant [x] (German, in Bach) would be voiceless, linguaposterior, palatal, continuant, fricative, and the consonant [g] would be voiced, lingua-velar, stop plosive.
The use of such terminology by both students and teachers provides a means of reaching understanding with the greatest economy. These terms also tend to make directives more physiological than psychological, which is the aim of this book (See Table II, p.254.)
Fig. 111. Physical Geography of the Speech Mechanism
TERMS PERTAINING TO THE PARTS OF
THE SPEECH MECHANISM
alveolar ridge—The upper or lower gum ridge.
dental—Pertaining to the teeth.
glottis— Space between the vocal folds.
glottal stroke—When the vocal folds are firmly approximated and a sudden expulsion of air causes them to burst open, the resulting sound tends to be rough and metallic. The action is called coup de glotte or the stroke of the glottis. The phonemic symbol for the glottal stroke is [?].
labial—Pertaining to the two lips.
lateral—The sound of [l]; sounds in which the air stream is emitted through a lateral orifice formed along one or both sides of the tongue.
lingual— Pertaining to the tongue.
mandible—Lower jaw.
maxilla—Upper jaw.
nasal—The sound of [m] and [n], created by closing the labial orifice and permitting the uvula to be suspended away from the pharyngeal wall in the neutral position. This position permits the passage of air into both the oral and nasal cavities. The nares of the nose then become the outer orifices. The [m] is the most easily produced speech sound in the English language. It is the [ŋ] sound emitted as a continuant. The port into the nasopharynx is open. The oral cavity does not serve as a resonator during the production of this phoneme.
nasal port—The open space created between the oropharynx and nasopharynx when the uvula is removed from the pharyngeal wall during the production of nasal sounds.
oral or buccal— Pertaining to the mouth cavity.
palate—Roof of the oral cavity. (See also soft palate.)
prepalatal— Pertaining to the anterior part of the hard palate.
mediopalatal—Pertaining to the middle part of the hard palate.
postpalatal— Pertaining to the posterior part of the hard palate.
pharynx—Extends vertically (eleven centimeters in the male) from the base of the skull to the upper border of the sixth cervical vertebra; the pharynx is subdivided into the following:
nasopharynx—Extends from the base of the skull to the velum.
oropharynx—Extends from the velum to the tip of the epiglottis.
laryngopharynx—Extends from the tip of the epiglottis to the superior surface of the vocal folds.
pharyngeal wall—Posterior surface of the pharynx.
raphe—A line of union between two contiguous and similar structures.
sibilant—The sound of [s]; a friction sound emitted through a very narrow orifice.
tongue—A movable fleshy projection of the floor of the mouth that includes the following parts:
tip—The extreme forward edge of the tongue.
blade—The forepart of the tongue.
dorsum—That portion of the upper tongue between blade and root.
predorsum—The portion of the upper tongue surface that lies immediately posterior to the blade.
mediodorsum—The mid-point of the dorsum.
postdorsum—The portion of the upper tongue surface that lies immediately anterior to the root.
radix—The point at which the tongue root joins the epiglottis. (See Fig. 22B.)
root—The portion of the upper surface of the tongue that lies within the pharynx.
uvula—The pendulous projection on the middle lower border of the velum; it is functional during the production of nasal sounds, and it separates the oropharynx and nasopharynx during the production of vowels and consonants.
vallecula—Space between the epiglottis and the radix of the tongue. (See Fig. 21A.)
velum—The soft palate.
prevelar—Pertaining to the anterior part of the soft palate.
postvelar—Pertaining to the posterior part of the soft palate.
TERMS PERTAINING TO THE PRODUCTION
OF VOWELS
closed, open, half-closed, half-open—The size of the aperture between the maxilla and mandible.
closed vowels—Singer’s term for a tense vowel in phonetics, refers to the amount of tension in the articulatory musculature; tense vowels are [i], closed [ē], [o], [u], [ʌ] above the staff.
front, mid, central, back, high, low— These terms refer to that area of the upper tongue surface showing the highest point of arching during the production of a given vowel; [i], high front; [ε], mid-front; [ɑ], low front; [a], low central; [ʌ], mid-central [ɔ], low back; [u], high back.
lip protrusion—Trumpet shape used in the production of the vowels [ɔ], [u], and [ɜ].
lip-rounding—A circular closure of the labial orifice used for production of most of the back vowels.
lip-spreading—Achieved by raising the corners of the lips, it is used for the production of the frontal vowels.
open vowels—Singer’s term for lax vowels in phonetics; it refers to the absence of tension in the articulatory musculature; lax vowels are [I], open [e], [ε], [ӕ], [a], [ɑ], [ɔ], [ô], [u], [ʌ] within the staff.
pure vowel—Defined acoustically, a sound that is sustained by a stabilized mechanism for the duration of the pitch within an acoustical area of two semitones from the center of the basic vowel or its quality alternate. Defined psychologically, the pure vowel sound is one which lies within the pure vowel area. It is a vowel in which the vocal mechanism is stable for the duration of any pitch and in itself is identified by the singer as the basic vowel or its quality alternate that provides the correct phoneme for the pronunciation of any word.
tongue-backing—The movement of the dorsum of the tongue backward to an arched position, high and extremely backed for the vowel [u], low and less backed for [ɔ].
TERMS PERTAINING TO THE PRODUCTION
OF CONSONANTS
A consonant is an interruption of a vowel sound by the movement of the lips, teeth, tongue, or velum which results in an obstruction within the oral cavity. This obstruction interrupts the phonated sound altogether or confines it to a hum or a friction noise. In terms of movement, phoneticians consider consonants to be either continuant or stops. An explanation and classification of these consonantal sounds follows:
affricates—A stop plosive followed by a continuant fricative with both sounds originating in the same organic position, such as [ts] and [dz].
aspiration—A stop plosive followed by a puff of unvoiced air (explosion), such as [p] as in pot, [t] as in talk.
continuant fricative—A consonant sound that results from frictional noise caused by the breath passing through a small oral opening between the teeth or lips, such as voiced fricatives [v], [ð], [3], [z]; unvoiced [f], [θ], [ʃ], [s].
long consonant—A consonant that is held long enough in its production to give the effect of doubling the sound without actually repeating the movements necessary to make it. Examples are this city [ðI:sItI], come Mary [kʌm:erI], cat tail [kat:eI]. The modifier [:] indicates lengthening.
retroflex—Describes sounds for which the tongue tip is curled upward and backward, as in the General American [ɝ].
stop plosive—A consonant sound produced by stopping the air stream at some point in the oral cavity to build up pressure and then releasing it suddenly. Voiced stop are [b], [d], [g]; unvoiced are [p], [t], [k].
unaspiration—A stop plosive made without an outward explosion of air (implosion) such as [h] in hot, [d] as in doll. In singing, implosion occurs in the use of plosives that are normally exploded when they are followed by a voiced consonant. Examples are listed below:
What do—[t] is normally aspirated.
Help me—[p] is normally aspirated.
Walk down—[k] is normally aspirated.
unvoiced—Vocal folds are not approximated and phonation does not occur during the production of unvoiced consonants [p], [t], [k], [f], [θ], [ʃ], [s].
voiced—Vocal folds are approximated and phonation occurs during the production of voiced consonants [b], [d], [g], [v], [ð], [z], [3].
THE NECESSITY FOR PHONEMIC ACCURACY
The establishment of a correct phonemic placement in the vocalic utterance of a student depends upon a fundamental law of teaching: the teacher must know how to attain such a placement either by psychological or physiological method. Physiological systems have an advantage here, for recordings and diagrams are not necessary to implement teaching if the teacher really knows the physiological positions of the articulators for a specific phoneme. Such a teacher demonstrates, using himself as an audio-visual tool, and by such a method attains his objectives in pronunciation, enunciation, and articulation.
The confusion in teaching procedures may be understood when one realizes that all of the fifteen phonemes may be established within a singer’s technique through either lip-rounding or lip-spreading and either sound may be accepted by some teachers as good diction and suitable for communication in song. However, in teaching vowels for singing the singer and the teacher must accept the fact that, to achieve a standard pronunciation of a word which is free from the dialectal tendencies of a national minority, the singer must master the ideal and proper vocal placement of the vowel sounds within every word, monosyllable, or polysyllable, regardless of the linguistic environment in which they may appear.
As an example, a rounded frontal [y] is not [i] nor is it used in the English language. Likewise [ø] is not [ē]; nor [œ], [ε]. These rounded frontals are used in both the French and German languages and should be recognized by the performer as proper for that language. Other abuses more frequently heard include [nɔt] for [nɑt], [ʌgInst] for [ʌganst], [kɑf] for [kɔf], etc. The vowel migration drills which follow are devices which must be understood and then imitated by comparison with the recorded examples. This will establish an ear-training program for phonemic accuracy which will lead to better intelligibility of the word and a greater consideration of its prosodic significance within a specific linguistic environment.
VISUAL ANALYSIS OF ARTICULATORY MOVEMENT
In the following kinesiologic analysis, the radiographs, which reveal the movements of the articulators, are the result of six years of research in phonemic identity in song by the author at the Indiana University Medical Center in Indianapolis, Indiana.
The teacher or singer viewing these radiographs, lip positions, and palatograms will realize that the positions of the articulators as well as the cavity contours will be identical for men, women, and children if an identical phoneme is to be reproduced. Greater or lesser cavity dimension will alter the acoustic position of each phoneme, but the sound will not lose its phonemic integrity; i.e., if a female singer, viewing the page for the phoneme [i] places the tongue in the suggested position, with the points of tongue contact at the palate suggested by the palatogram and the suggested degree of lip-spreading, an identical phoneme will be assured. These visuals are designed to implement the recorded sound of these phonemes, and with some practicing and ear-training they may be reproduced accurately. Gradually the physiological sensation will dominate, and the student will remember how such a phoneme feels when sung within specific tonal areas. Every attempt must be made to use these vowels in context for this is the goal of phonemic accuracy in song.
VOWEL MIGRATION DRILLS AND
RECORDED EXAMPLES
The following exercises and recorded examples are disciplinary drills which employ the same concepts of support as the basic drills introduced in Chapter Two on page 11, namely, “Sustain the sound with the breath pressure,” To use these drills efficiently the teacher and the student must memorize the Vowel Migration Chart (Fig. 103, p. 234). Both teacher and student must also determine the pitch boundaries of the stable vowel pitch range in which all vowels are pure and of the first and second migration pitch areas in which all vowels are modified to a varying degree dependent upon the vocal force and the sung pitch. The objectives of the drills and these exercises are as follows:
1. To unify and coordinate the forces of respiration and phonation through action in song.
2. To provide an awareness of the physical sensation and action of the abdominal and back musculature, consciously controlled.
3. To refine to a point of perfection this basic action of pulsated tones throughout the vocal range.
4. To bring to the student the awareness that the total body is the vocal instrument.
Three goals must be attained in each exercise:
1. The breath must precede the sound. To create such a physiological condition a state of suspended muscular tension must be present at the start of phonation. Such a condition is identified by the absence of glottic shock; the absence of a metallic sound. The presence of a very slight aspirate which is coordinated instantaneously with the phonated sound.
2. The breath pressure must sustain the sound. The sensation of effort must be felt at the belt line. The concept of sustaining the breath pressure is one of constantly and firmly closing a circle around the middle part of the body.
3. The integrity of the vowel must be preserved in diatonic and intervallic pattern. The movement of each vowel from its position within the stable vowel pitch range to that of the first and second migration pitch ranges must be conceived and employed. To assure the student that he is properly employing abdominal control of breathing for singing, he may be permitted to overpulsate each line to assure the achievement of the concept of sustaining the sound with the breath.
All Concone exercises or similar scale studies first should be conceived as pulsated tones sung in the same rhythmic pattern as the exercise. The physical sensation of the level rhythmic pattern should then be applied to the melodic pattern. Such practice provides the student with a physical awareness of support that he may miss if he sings only the melodic study. The student will usually be able to sing the level pulsated pattern properly, but when he sings the melodic pattern, inconsistencies of pitch and breath support will be discovered. The student should drill persistently upon such points until the smoothness of the pulsated level pattern has been transferred to the melodic pattern.
The ideal condition is a fast scale without noticeable pulsations. This condition is realized when the singer achieves economy of effort and impeccable bodily control of the intonation and flexibility (Records 1-4, Bands 2 and 4).
The numbers which appear to the left of the drills on pages 298 to 340 correspond with the numbers of the recorded examples. The soprano voice appears on Record 1, Bands 1-30; mezzo soprano on P.ecord 2, Bands 1-21; tenor on Record 3, Bands 1-21; and bass, Record 4, Bands 1-30.
ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC VOWEL [i]
(See pp. 298 and 299 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The vowel [i] is seldom sung in its stable position by the untrained singer; the sound of this phoneme must be taught by the teacher. With practice, however, this high frontal vowel can become an acceptable sound within the singer’s repertoire of phonemes. Most singers tend to sing this vowel too loudly, with the tongue too high and too close to the front, and without increasing the size of the pharynx. As a result, the sound of this phoneme is constricted and unmusical. As an alternate, the singer invariably substitutes the quality alternate vowel [1].
To use this phoneme properly two rules must be observed:
1. Within the stable vowel pitch range (Records 1-4, Band 7)—the basic vowel [i], must be sung only at double piano and piano levels of intensity. At mezzo forte levels, this phoneme migrates normally toward the quality alternate vowel [I] (Fig. 103).
2. The singer must hold the larynx at a slightly higher position in soft passages to preserve the phoneme [i] and to prevent its migration toward the rounded frontal [y]. This phoneme is acceptable in singing soft passages that lie within the stable vowel pitch range. Its use increases textual intelligibility and enhances the singer’s style through increased effort for articulation.
Type.High front, close, spread, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread by slightly extending the corners of the mouth to form an orifice elongated transversely and quite narrow vertically. The spreading should be accentuated for sound sung within double piano and piano intensities. As the intensity increases from a mezzo forte to a forte, the labial orifice is slightly increased vertically by lowering the mandible. This increase in the size of the orifice permits the phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate [I].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and the dorsum touch the palatal area at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is grooved along the medial raphe from the blade to the root. The groove becomes more pronounced from the postdorsal area, and it increases in depth from the tongue root to the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal cavity during the utterance of this vowel. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly a distance of approximately twenty-four millimeters from its position in a passive state; the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis move with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction. It is short, extending from the prepalatal to the mediopalatal position. However, the tongue groove is shallow from the blade to the dorsum. This long, constricted channel gives the vowel [i] its individual characteristic. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. With an increase in vocal force, the muscular tension of the tongue decreases laterally and is accompanied by the lowering of the mandible. These actions increase the vertical dimension of the oral cavity at the dorsal area, thus causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate [I].
Mandible.The mandible is closed, permitting a vertical opening of one-half inch between the teeth at the center. With an increase in vocal force from mezzo piano to forte, the mandible is lowered slightly; this lowering increases both front and back orifices and enlarges the front cavity, thus causing a migration of the phoneme toward the quality alternate [I].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly below that of the passive state but slightly higher than that used in singing the neutral vowel [ʌ]. AS the intensity increases, a lower laryngeal position is assumed to impart stability to the phonatory system. The lower position is accompanied by a slight tilt of the thyroid cartilage, which increases the tension of the vocal folds (Fig. 27B, p. 58).
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent the sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall into the oropharynx.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.In comparison with their position for the stable vowel, the lips are less spread at the corners. The vertical dimension of the labial orifice changes little at low intensity levels. This condition persists if pitches within this modification area are approached from below or if a sung sound originates upon such a pitch. As the vocal force exceeds mezzo forte, the lips are less spread and the vertical dimension of the labial orifice increases. The phoneme then migrates toward the quality alternate [I].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is lowered slightly from the blade to the mediodorsal area, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The blade and dorsum touch the palate at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is grooved from the mediodorsum to the root. The radix of the tongue is more relaxed and permits the epiglottis to move closer to the pharyngeal wall. Although the opening of the-vestibule is unrestricted, this movement changes its conformation and resonance characteristics. The back orifice is short, the point of maximum constriction is in the mediodorsum and the mediopalatal area. The oral cavity is smaller than the pharyngeal cavity. As the vocal force increases, the muscular tension of the tongue decreases laterally; this movement is accompanied by a lowering of the mandible. These actions increase the vertical dimension of the oral cavity from the blade to the dorsum, and the vowel migrates toward the quality alternate [I].
Mandible.In comparison with its basic vowel position, the position of the mandible is slightly lower during the production of low intensity sounds. As the intensity increases above mezzo forte, the mandible is lowered as in the production of the phoneme [I].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is lowered approximately one centimeter from that assumed when producing the basic vowel [i]. As vocal force increases above mezzo forte, the larynx is lowered slightly to increase the vertical dimension of the pharynx. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is increased.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with the sound produced within the first modification pitch range, the labial orifice is elongated vertically by lowering the mandible. Lip-spreading is eliminated.
Tongue.The tongue is lowered from the blade to the dorsum, but the tongue arch retains its stable vowel conformation. The tongue has a shallow groove from the tip of the dorsum, and it is deeply grooved from the dorsum to the root. The blade and the dorsum touch the palatal area at each lateral tooth line. The radix of the tongue is more relaxed and permits the epiglottis to move closer to the pharyngeal wall. Although the opening of the vestibule is unrestricted, this movement changes its conformation and resonance characteristics. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the mediodorsum-mediopalatal position. This tongue-fronting tends to preserve the integrity of the phoneme [I] even though the pitch is high. As the vocal force is increased, these movements are accentuated. The vowel produced is the quality alternate phoneme [I].
Mandible.The mandible is lowered slightly. The lowering increases as the vocal force increases.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than that assumed during the production of the phoneme [ʌ] in the first modification pitch range. This laryngeal distension produces a similar increase in the vertical dimension of the pharynx, which permits the pharyngeal resonator to be compatible with the increase in intensity. The thyroid tilt is approximately the same as it is when the sound is produced in the first modification pitch range.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
CLOSED VOWEL [ē]
(See pp. 300 and 301 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The closed vowel [ē] seldom occurs in stressed syllables in American speech. The phoneme [ē] in the words name, tame, and game become diphthongs and are pronounced [nēIm], [tēIm], and [gēIm]. The expert singer will tend to minimize such a result and sing the pure phoneme open [e], which is the proper phoneme to use when singing English songs.
The phoneme closed [ē] is indispensable when singing German lieder or the French art song. Such German words as ewig [ēvIg], rede [rēdə], gewesen[gavēzan], and edel [ēdəl] and the French words passer [pasiē], dēs [de], pieds [pjē], and efforts [ēfɔr] demand the closed vowel [ē] position in song.
An illustration of the usage of this phoneme in English, German, and French is on Record 5, Bands 1-14.
Type.High front, close, spread, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread by extending the corners of the mouth; the resulting orifice is elongated transversely and quite narrow vertically, a position similar to that used for [i]. When the vowel is sung within double piano and piano intensities, the spreading should be accentuated. As the vocal force increases, the muscular tension of the tongue increases laterally to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. Unless the vocal force is extreme, this phoneme is stable to top line F. The normal migration in fortissimo passages is toward the quality alternate vowel [I].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum touch the palatal area at each lateral tooth line, but the lateral spreading from the tip to the dorsum is much more pronounced than it is in producing the vowel [i]. This lateral spreading—the significant characteristic of this phoneme—slightly increases the vertical dimension of the oral cavity from the tip of the tongue to the mediodorsal area. This slight movement of the tongue blade is the only difference between the [i] and the closed [ē] phonemes. The tongue is grooved along the median raphe from the blade to the root. The groove becomes more pronounced from the postdorsal area; it increases in depth at the tongue root and adds to the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal cavity. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction, the mediopalatal-mediodorsal position. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue has moved anteriorly approximately nineteen millimeters from its passive position; the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis move with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. An increase in vocal force increases the muscular tension of the tongue laterally to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When the vocal force is extreme, the normal migration is toward the [I]. However, if the tongue stricture is firm this phoneme does not migrate.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly lower than that assumed during the passive state and approximately the same as that used to produce the vowel [i]. As the vocal force increases, a lower laryngeal position is assumed to impart stability to the phonatory system. The pharyngeal position is lowered by a slight tilt of the thyroid cartilage, which increases the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall and prevents the sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall into the oropharynx, which suggests a relaxed muscular state.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When sounds are sung at low intensity within this pitch range, the lips retain their spread characteristic. The labial orifice is elongated transversely and slightly more open vertically. If tongue stricture is maintained, this phoneme does not migrate.
Tongue.When singing the phoneme closed [ē] at low intensities within the first migration pitch range, the tongue position does not change from that assumed during the production of closed [ē] within the stable vowel pitch range. The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum are in firm contact with the palate at the lateral tooth line. The tongue root retains its deep groove. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the mediopalatal-mediodorsal position. The pharyngeal cavity is long and wide in comparison with the oral cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As the vocal force increases, the muscular tension of the tongue is increased to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When vocal force is extreme, the vowel will migrate to the quality alternate vowel [I].
Mandible.The mandible is no lower than it is for singing within the basic vowel pitch range.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is approximately one centimeter lower than it is for singing within the basic vowel pitch range. This lowering increases the vertical dimension of the pharynx. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains unchanged.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall and is shortened from its pendulus position.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.In comparison to its position for the sound produced in the first migration pitch range, the labial orifice is elongated vertically by lowering the mandible. Lip-spreading is eliminated.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum are in firm contact with the palate at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is grooved from the tip to the root, and the groove is deepened from the dorsum to the base of the root. Tongue-backing is less accentuated in this second migration pitch range; therefore, the tongue hump is lower at the dorsal-velar position. The frontal area from tip to pre-dorsum is also lower because of the lateral spreading and a relaxation of the muscular tension of the tongue. This lateral tension identifies this phoneme as [e] rather than [i]; otherwise, the tongue positions of each vowel are similar. The deepened tongue groove increases the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx from the postdorsal position to the tongue root. The back orifice is located at the mediopalatal-mediodorsal position. The position of the epiglottis is unchanged.
The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue has moved anteriorly a distance of approximately five millimeters from its position in a passive state, and the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis move with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force increases these movements of the tongue become more accentuated. When vocal force is extreme within the pitch range, the integrity of the [e] phoneme must be preserved by extreme lateral spreading and muscular tension of the frontal part of the tongue from tip to mediodorsum; otherwise, the sound will migrate to the phoneme [I].
Mandible.The mandible is lowered slightly in comparison with the mandibular position of the first migration pitch range of the phoneme [e].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately five millimeters from its position for the phoneme [ē] closed when it is sung within the first modification pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx increases as the larynx is lowered. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is the same as when the phoneme is produced within the first modification pitch range.
Velum.The velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE VOWEL [I]
(See pp. 302 and 303 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.High front, close, spread, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are less tense than they are in producing the vowel [i]. Tension is decreased. The corners of the lips are not extended. The labial orifice is elongated transversely and is quite narrow vertically. The vertical opening is slightly increased from that of the vowel [i]. For sounds sung within double piano and piano intensities, the spreading should be accentuated. As the intensity increases from mezzo forte to forte the lowering of the mandible slightly increases the labial orifice vertically. This increase in the vertical dimension of the orifice is needed to maintain good vocalic sound. When it is sung within the basic vowel pitch range, the vowel [I] does not migrate to another phoneme.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum touch the palatal area at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is grooved along the median raphe from the blade to the root. The groove becomes more pronounced from the postdorsal area and deepens at the tongue root, thus adding to the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal cavity during the utterance of this vowel. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately two centimeters; it moves with it the hyoid bone and the lip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the prepalatal area where the tongue groove starts and where the medial raphe is closest to the palate. The front cavity is small compared to the back cavity. An increase in vocal force requires an increase in lateral muscular tension of the tongue to preserve the integrity of the phoneme.
Mandible.The mandible is lowered approximately one quarter of an inch, to permit a vertical opening three quarters of an inch wide between the teeth at the center. With the increase in vocal force from mezzo piano to forte, the mandible is lowered, slightly increasing the vertical dimension of both front and back orifices and enlarging the front cavity. If the tongue stricture is preserved, this vowel will not migrate. The singer must apply maximum vocal force to dislodge this phoneme, for it is the most stable of the frontal vowels. This stability is understandable when one realizes that all unstressed syllables are either [ə] or [I].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly lower than that assumed during the passive state and approximately the same as that used for singing the vowel [i]. As the vocal force increases, a lower laryngeal position is assumed to impart stability to the phonatory system. The lower position is accompanied by a slight tilt of the thyroid cartilage, which increases the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall and prevents the sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall into the oropharynx.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When this phoneme is sung within the first migration pitch range, the labial orifice assumes the same position required for the quality alternate vowel when it is sung within the basic pitch range. As vocal force increases, the labial orifice is enlarged vertically by lowering the mandible to increase the sonority of the sounds.
Tongue.In comparison with the vowel [I] sung within the stable vowel pitch range the point of constriction is greatest at the mediopalatal position. A deepening of the tongue groove from the postdorsum to the tongue root increases the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx. The cavity system is still loosely coupled. As vocal force increases, the tension of the tongue is decreased laterally and the mandible is slightly lowered. The point of constriction is maintained at the mediopalatal position preserving the integrity of the phoneme [I]. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly a distance of approximately one centimeter and moves the hyoid bone and the lip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than that assumed during the production of this phoneme within the stable vowel pitch range. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is accentuated. The lower laryngeal position increases the pharyngeal cavity vertically. As vocal force increases, the movement is accentuated.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.In comparison with their position when the vowel [I] is sung in the first modification pitch range, the lips are less tense as the pitch is raised. The labial orifice increases vertically. As the intensity increases, lip tension is increased to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. The enlargement permits the phoneme to increase in sonority.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum are in firm contact with the palate at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is grooved from the tip to the root, this groove deepens from the dorsum to the base of the root. Tongue-backing is less accentuated in the second migration pitch range; therefore, the tongue hump is lower at the dorsal-velar position. This action permits a longer and wider pharyngeal resonating area by extending the back resonator to the back orifice, which is maintained at the mediopalatal-mediodorsal position. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force increases, these tongue movements become more accentuated. If tongue stricture is maintained this phoneme remains stable when vocal force is increased.
Mandible.The mandible is lowered slightly from the position for vowel [I] sung within the first modification pitch range.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered one centimeter from the position for the phoneme [I] sung within the first migration pitch range. The pharynx increases vertically as the larynx is lowered. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is the same as for the first migration pitch range.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC VOWEL OPEN [e]
(See pp. 304 and 305 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type. Mid-front, half-open, spread, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice. The lips are spread less than they are for producing the closed vowel [ē]. The labial orifice is wider transversely than vertically, and the musclar tension of the lips is relaxed. As vocal force increases, the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible, but some characteristic spreading is maintained. As the cavity enlarges, this phoneme migrates toward the quality alternate [ε].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum do not touch the palatal area at the lateral tooth line because the mandible has been lowered; the position of the tongue and its conformation is the same as that assumed while producing the closed [ē] with two exceptions: (a) the tongue groove is not as deep from the tip to the mediodorsal area, and (b) the lateral spreading of the dorsum is more relaxed, thus causing an increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity from tip to mediodorsal position. The tongue is grooved along the median raphe from the tip of the mediodorsal area, where the superior surface is rounded. The groove is deepened from the postdorsal area to the tongue root, adding to the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal cavity. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal position. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately fifteen millimeters from its position in a passive state, and moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The front cavity is small in comparison with the back cavity. An increase of vocal force requires an increase laterally in the muscular tension of the tongue to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When vocal force is extreme, the normal migration is toward the quality alternate [ε].
Mandible.The mandible is lowered one-quarter of an inch from the mandibular position of closed [ē], creating a vertical opening of one and one-quarter inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force increases, the mandible is lowered farther. As a fortissimo is reached, the vertical increase in oral cavity causes the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate [ε].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is held slightly lower than its passive position and approximately three quarters of an inch lower than that assumed in producing the closed vowel [ē]. As the vocal force is increased, the lowered position is accentuated, and the thyroid cartilage tilts forward to increase the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall into the oropharynx.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread less than they are for producing the phoneme within the basic pitch range. The muscular tension of the lips is relaxed. The labial orifice is as wide vertically as transversely. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum do not touch with the palatal area at the lateral tooth line. The tongue is humped in a symmetrical arc from tip to blade. The tongue has a shallow groove from the tip to the dorsum, but it is deeply grooved from the dorsum to the root. The vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased slightly by lowering the mandible. The pharyngeal cavity is larger transversely in comparison to its size when the phoneme closed [ē] is sung within the first migration pitch range. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal position. The front cavity is small compared to the back cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. An increase in vocal force necessitates an increase in the muscular tension of the tongue to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When vocal force is extreme, the normal migration is toward the open [e].
Mandible.The mandible is lower than it is for the basic vowel position. As vocal force increases, the mandible is lowered further to permit the phoneme to migrate to the quality alternate [ε].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered slightly from the basic vowel position, causing a slight increase in the vertical dimension of the pharynx. As vocal force is increased, the laryngeal lowering is accentuated.
Velum.The velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with the position for the same sound produced in the first migration pitch range, the labial orifice is elongated very slightly vertically. Lip-reading is eliminated.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The frontal part of the tongue from tip to dorsum does not change its conformation from that required by the vowel [e] produced in the first migration pitch range. The tongue is more deeply grooved from the blade to the postdorsum, thus increasing the dimension of both oral and pharyngeal cavities. The oral cavity is smaller than the pharyngeal cavity. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal position. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force increases, the tongue movements are accentuated, and the vowel migrates toward the phoneme [ε].
Mandible.The posterior of the mandible is unchanged from that of the vowel [e] sung within the first migration pitch range. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered to permit greater sonority. The vowel then migrates toward the phoneme [ε].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately seven centimeters when compared with the phoneme [e] open sung in the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased as the larynx is lowered. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is the same as when the phoneme is produced within the first migration pitch range.
Velum.The velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE VOWEL [ε]
(See pp. 306 and 307 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Mid-front, half-open, spread, loosely to tightly coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are in the same position as they are for producing the vowel [e] open—wider transversely than vertically. Muscular tension of the lips is slightly relaxed. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible, but the characteristic spreading demanded of the phoneme is maintained. As the cavity enlarges, the phoneme migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip, blade, and dorsum of the tongue are not grooved. The tongue is grooved from the post-dorsal area to the tongue root, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx. The oral cavity is enlarged vertically. The conformation of the tongue is identical to that for producing the vowel [e] open, except that the mediodorsal-mediopalatal area is flattened. The back orifice is formed at this point. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately fourteen millimeters from its passive position, and the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis move with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and enlarges the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force is increased, the oral cavity is enlarged vertically by lowering the mandible, thus causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible.The position of the mandible is identical to that assumed when producing the vowel [e] open. The vertical opening is approximately one and one-quarter inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is slightly lowered, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The phoneme [ε] then migrates toward the quality alternate phoneme [a].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly lower than that assumed in a passive state, approximately the same as that assumed in producing the vowel [e] open. As vocal force is increased, the lower pharyngeal position is accentuated to stabilize the phonatory tube, and the thyroid cartilage tilts forward slightly to increase the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall and prevents sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall into the oropharynx.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are relaxed and in the same position as they are to produce the vowel [e] in its basic pitch range. The labial orifice is wider transversely than vertically. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered to increase the vertical dimension of the orifice. As the oral cavity is enlarged, the phoneme migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip, blade, and mediodorsum are not grooved. The postdorsum and root are deeply grooved, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx. The tongue hump is more rounded and lower at the dorsum than it is when the phoneme is sung in the basic vowel pitch range, and thereby, the vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased. This enlargement is caused by slightly increasing the muscular tension of the tongue laterally to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal area. The radix of the tongue has moved anteriorly approximately three millimeters from its position in the stable vowel pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force is increased, the oral cavity is enlarged vertically by lowering the mandible, and the vowel migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible.The mandible is lower than it is when this phoneme is sung in the stable vowel pitch range. As vocal force increases, the oral cavity is increased vertically, thus causing the phoneme [ε] to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one and one-half centimeters from the position used for singing this phoneme in the basic vowel pitch range. This lower position increases the vertical dimension of the pharynx. As vocal force is increased, the laryngeal lowering is accentuated to stabilize the phonatory tube. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains approximately the same as it was when the phoneme was sung in the stable vowel pitch range.
Velum.The posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavities.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are more relaxed than they were for singing the vowel [e] in its first migration pitch range. The labial orifice has the same vertical and transverse dimensions. As vocal force increases, the orifice is enlarged vertically by lowering the mandible. This enlargement of the orifice permits the sound to become more sonorous.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The predorsum is highly arched. The tongue groove is deepened at the postdorsum and the root area is deeply grooved. The enlargement of the pharyngeal cavity extending from mediodorsum to the tongue root is extreme. The inner orifice is located at the predorsum, prepalatal position. The radix of the tongue is more relaxed, and it thus permits the epiglottis to move three millimeters closer to the pharyngeal wall than in the first modification pitch range. Although the opening of the vestibule is unrestricted, this movement changes its conformation and resonance characteristics.
Mandible.When compared with the phoneme [ε] sung in the first migration pitch range, the mandible is in approximately the same position. As vocal force increases, the mandible is lowered, causing the phoneme to migrate to the quality alternate vowel [a].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately seven millimeters from the position of the first migration pitch range. The pharynx is increased in its vertical dimension. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC VOWEL [ӕ]
(See pp. 308 and 309 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Low front, half-open, spread, tightly coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread. Tension is increased at the corners as it is in producing the high frontal [I]. The orifice is wider transversely than vertically; as vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible. As the cavity enlarges, this phoneme migrates directly to the quality alternate [a]. If the position and tension of the narrowed orifice are maintained and if the mandible is not lowered as vocal force is increased, this vowel becomes quite blatant and unmusical. The phoneme [ӕ] in its basic position can be used in song only at pianissimo and piano intensity levels. Even at these intensities singers should modify this vowel toward the quality alternate [a].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is not grooved from the tip to the predorsal area, but it is deeply grooved from the postdorsum to the root, thus increasing the anterior-posterior dimensions of the pharynx. The conformation of the tongue hump is identical to that used to produce the vowel [ε] except that the dorsum is lowered and flattened, causing the vertical dimension of the frontal oral cavity to increase. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the mediodorsal area. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately eight millimeters from its passive position, and it moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force increases, the oral cavity is increased vertically by lowering the mandible, thus causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible.The mandible is lowered to permit a vertical opening approximately one and three-quarters inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered slightly. The increase vertically in the cavity dimension causes the phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is not lower than the position assumed while producing the vowel [ε]. The thyroid tilts considerably less than for [ε].
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended into the oropharynx away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread less laterally than they are for singing the phoneme [ӕ]. Tension at the corners of the lips is reduced. The labial orifice does not change vertically until the vocal force is increased above mezzo forte. The enlarged orifice permits the vowel to become more sonorous.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue hump is lower from the blade to the postdorsum, increasing the oral cavity vertically. The lateral tension of the tongue is increased to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. The transverse dimension of the pharyngeal cavity does not change. The tongue is grooved from the mediopalatal position. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force is increased, the movement of the oral and pharyngeal cavities is accentuated causing the phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is for singing this phoneme in the basic vowel pitch range. This lowering increases the oral cavity vertically. As the vocal force increases, the mandible is lowered. The enlarged vertical dimension of the oral cavity permits the phoneme [ӕ] to migrate to the quality alternate vowel [a].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is lower than it is for singing in the basic vowel pitch area. The laryngeal lowering of approximately one centimeter causes the increase in the vertical dimension of the pharynx. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.In comparison with their position for the phoneme [ӕ] sung within the first migration pitch range, the lips are without lateral tension. Lowering the mandible enlarges the labial orifice vertically. As the vocal force increases, the orifice is elongated to permit the phoneme to attain greater sonority.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is lowered and deeply grooved from the predorsum to the tongue root. The tongue is fronted and humped from the tip to the blade. The increase in the transverse dimension of the pharynx is greatest at the medio-dorsal-velar position. The back orifice is formed at the predorsal-prepalatal position. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. The open throat so often described by vocal pedagogues is necessary to produce this phoneme accurately within this pitch area. The phoneme produced is that of the quality alternate vowel [a]. At extreme forte intensity, the neutral vowel [ʌ] is substituted for [a].
Mandible.The mandible is no lower than it is when this phoneme is sung in the first migration pitch range. As intensity is increased, the mandible is lowered, and the phoneme attains greater sonority.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one centimeter from its position for the first migration. The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than it is when the phoneme [a] is sung in the first modification pitch area. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged. As vocal force increases, the laryngeal lowering is accentuated.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE VOWEL [a]
(See pp. 310 and 311 for migration drills and illustrations
and Record 1, Band 29 for French placement of this vowel.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The quality alternate vowel [a], known phonetically as the medial [a], is the most useful point of migration of any of the low or mid-frontal vowels. The quality alternate vowel [a] is always substituted for [ӕ] at all pitch levels and when the vocal force is above mezzo forte.
When it is sung in the first migration pitch area, the quality alternate vowel [a] is the normal migration point of all words spelled with e and those that demand the use of the phoneme [ε]. Such words are quest [kwεst], any [εnI], friend [frεnd], said [sed], and weather [wεðə].
Type.Low frontal, half-open, neutral, tightly coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are not as tense as they are for production of the vowel [ӕ]. They are neither raised at the corners nor spread, but a very slight tension at the corners of the lips must be maintained to prevent the phoneme [a] from migrating to the low central vowel [ɑ]. The vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible from the position used for [ӕ]. As intensity increases, the cavity is enlarged vertically and the phoneme migrates toward the basic vowel [ɑ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The root of the tongue is backed slightly toward the pharyngeal wall, and the dorsum is lower than it is for producing [ӕ]. The postdorsal area is slightly grooved and the root is deeply grooved, thus increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal cavity. The cavity system has no definite point of constriction. The points indicated by arrows are of equal constriction. The front cavity is slightly larger than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately six millimeters from its passive position, and the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis move with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As the vocal force increases, the oral cavity is enlarged vertically by lowering the mandible, and the vowel migrates toward the basic vowel [ɑ]. This cavity system is singly resonant and is a good example of a tightly coupled system.
Mandible.The mandible is approximately one-quarter of an inch lower than it is for producing [ӕ] to permit an opening of one inch between the teeth at the center. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered slightly. The increase in the vertical cavity dimension causes a migration of this phoneme toward the basic vowel [ɑ].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is held slightly lower than it is for producing [ӕ], and the tilt of the thyroid cartilage is much more pronounced. As the vocal force increases, the thyroid tilt is accentuated to increase the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is slightly arched and does not approximate the pharyngeal wall; therefore, some of the sound passes into the nasal cavity. The resulting slight nasality is noticeable in this phoneme when it is compared with [ӕ].
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with their position for singing the vowel [a] in the basic vowel pitch range, the lips are less tense at the corners but not as completely relaxed as they are for the low central phoneme [ɑ]. The labial orifice is approximately the same in its vertical and transverse dimensions. As vocal force is increased, the labial orifice is increased vertically by lowering the mandible.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The arching and backing of the tongue is approximately the same as it is when this phoneme is sung in the basic vowel pitch range. The root of the tongue is grooved. The unstable back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the root-pharyngeal wall position. The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately two millimeters from its position in the stable vowel migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The vertical dimension of the oral cavity is approximately the same as it is when this phoneme is sung in the basic vowel pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased by lowering the mandible, this increase gives the phoneme greater sonority and causes it to migrate toward the basic low central vowel [ɑ].
Mandible.When compared with the phoneme [a] sung within the basic vowel pitch range, the mandible is lowered very slightly. As the vocal force is increased, the phoneme is lowered but not as far as it is to produce the low central phoneme [ɑ]. The integrity of the phoneme can be preserved within the first migration pitch range. Intelligibility is lost when the low central phoneme [ɑ] is substituted for [a] at intensity levels below forte.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one centimeter from the laryngeal position assumed within the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with their position when the phoneme [a] is sung in the first migration pitch range, the lips are flexibly tense but very slightly protruded or rounded. This lip position prevents the phoneme from becoming blatant; it is also a stable vocal position for the singer. The labial orifice is elongated vertically. As vocal force increases, the position of the lips and the labial orifice is accentuated.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. When this phoneme is sung within the second migration pitch range, the tip and blade assume a higher position than when it is sung within the first migration pitch range. The dorsum and root are very deeply grooved, thus increasing the vertical dimension of the pharynx from the mediodorsum to the root. The weak inner orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the predorsum-alveolar ridge position. The frontal position of this orifice preserves the integrity of the phoneme [a]. The system is tightly coupled. As the intensity is increased, the tongue position is accentuated, and the phoneme migrates to the neutral vowel [ʌ]. The radix of the tongue has moved anteriorly approximately three millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately six millimeters lower than its position when the phoneme [a] is sung within the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains unchanged.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC VOWEL [ɑ]
(See pp. 312 and 313 for migration drills and illustrations
and Record 1, Band 29 for French Placement of this vowel.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Low central, open, neutral, loosely coupled.
Teachers of voice often reach agreement when considering the placement of the frontal or the back vowels, however, they are often most critical of the production of the low central vowel [ɑ]. In consideration of this professional difference of opinion, this phoneme has been recorded to make the musical sound acceptable to both teacher and singer.
The tongue is the most important articulator in the production of this most controversial vowel. The tongue position is more important than the mandibular position or labial opening as a control implement for the production of the vast number of acceptable sounds within this phoneme. The tongue position of the basic vowel [ɑ] is more rounded from the tip to the blade and the tongue-backing is less extreme than in the cardinal [ɑ] of Daniel Jones. Acoustically, this phoneme is positioned more toward the cardinal [ʌ]. The cardinal [ɑ] of Daniel Jones is an acceptable sound to the Latin ear.
Labial Orifice.A slight tension is maintained at the lateral borders of the lips when this vowel is produced in the stable vowel position. Unless this tension is present, the vowel [ɑ] will migrate to the neutral vowel [ʌ]. The vertically elongated shape of the labial orifice is created by the extreme lowering of the mandible. The vowel [ɑ] is made with the lowest mandibular position of all of the vowels. Slight lip-rounding will cause the vowel to migrate to the quality alternate [ɔ]. As force is applied, the lateral tension is removed from the lips, the labial orifice is elongated vertically and the vowel migrates toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The postdorsal area is backed and flattened, forming the back orifice where the postdorsum is closest to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The tongue is flattened from the tip to the dorsal area. The postdorsum is slightly grooved. The oral cavity is large when compared with the back cavity.
The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately four millimeters from its passive position and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force is increased, the tongue is raised slightly from the tip to the dorsum. The backing and flattening is less accentuated. This action with the relaxed labial orifice causes the vowel [ɑ] to migrate toward the neutral phoneme [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lowered to permit an opening of approximately one and one-half inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is slightly lowered, causing a vertical increase in the size of the oral cavity. Care should be taken by the singer to eliminate tension in the labial orifice as the cavity dimension increases vertically. This action will eliminate the blatancy of this phoneme and will permit the migration of the vowel toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Laryngeal Position.Both the laryngeal position and tilt of the thyroid cartilage are the same as those assumed for the production of [a].
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is slightly arched and loosely approximates the pharyngeal wall. A slight leakage of sound into the nasal cavity is permitted. The uvula remains pendulous in the oropharynx away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.To preserve the integrity of the [ɑ], the lips should retain the flexible tension required in singing the vowel [ɑ] within the basic vowel pitch range. Singers have a strong tendency to relax the lips and permit them to assume the neutral, flaccid condition. A slightly modified [ɑ] can be preserved in the first migration pitch range.
The labial orifice is elongated vertically by lowering the mandible. The singer must be careful not to protrude or round the lips while singing at low intensity levels in this first migration pitch area. Lip-rounding will cause an immediate substitution of the phoneme [ɔ]. AS vocal force is increased, the labial orifice is elongated by lowering the mandible, and the phoneme migrates toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is slightly rounded from the tip to the mediodorsum. It is slightly grooved from blade to postdorsum. Tongue-backing is accentuated at the root position. The back orifice is formed where the root is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force is increased, the tongue is arched slightly at the dorsum. Tongue-backing is less accentuated and the anterior-posterior dimension of the back orifice increases. This action causes the phoneme to migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. As the vocal force is increased, the lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is two centimeters lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall. The phoneme [ɑ] has no nasality in it when it is sung within the first migration pitch range.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with the vowel [ɑ] sung within the first migration pitch range, the lips are more relaxed at the corners. The labial orifice is elongated vertically. It is flexibly tense and very slightly protruded. This protrusion adds stability to the vocalic sound. It should not be confused with lip-rounding. In the second migration pitch range, the labial orifice assumes the shape of the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. In comparison with its position when the phoneme [ɑ] sung is within the first migration pitch range, the tongue is raised from the tip to the predorsum. The mediodorsum and postdorsum are extremely flattened, and this flattening vertically enlarges the oral cavity at the dorsal-velar position. The dorsum is shallowly grooved, and the root is deeply grooved. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the upper tongue root is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity.
The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately ten millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force is increased, the tongue position described above is accentuated. The phoneme sung in this position is the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. When the vocal force is increased, the lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the first migration pitch range. The pharynx is enlarged vertically, but the tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains unchanged. As vocal force is increased, the lower laryngeal position is accentuated.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall. The sung phoneme [ʌ] lacks nasality within the second migration pitch range.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE VOWEL [ɔ]
(See pp. 314 and 315 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Low back, slightly rounded, open, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are firmly tense in a slightly rounded and protruded position. The labial orifice has the same vertical dimension as that assumed during the production of [ɑ]. As vocal force is increased, the lip-rounding is slightly relaxed, causing a slight migration of this phoneme toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom of the front teeth. The postdorsal area is backed and flattened more than when producing [ɑ]. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately two millimeters from its passive position. This movement only slightly enlarges the opening of the vestibule and slightly increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest construction where the postdorsal area is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the third cervical vertebra. The tongue is flattened from the tip of the mediodorsal area. The dorsum is slightly grooved. The oral cavity is large when compared with the pharyngeal cavity. As vocal force is increased, the postdorsum of the tongue is less backed, the back orifice disintegrates and the vowel migrates toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is slightly higher than the position assumed while producing the vowel [ɑ]. As intensity is increased, the mandible is lowered very slightly, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. This action, with the alteration of tongue-backing, causes the phoneme to migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is lower than during the production of the vowel [ɑ]. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is less than that in producing any other vowel with the exception of the closed [e], which is similar to a position of the passive state. As intensity is increased, tension of the vocal folds is realized by a lowered laryngeal position and a very slight tilt; in other phonemes, the laryngeal position is stabilized and the thyroid tilt is exaggerated.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum loosely approximates the pharyngeal wall. Some of the sound may pass into the nasal cavities. The uvula is not as pendulous but extends into the oropharynx away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with the phoneme [ɔ] sung within the basic vowel pitch range, the lips are more rounded and slightly protruded. The labial orifice is increased in vertical dimension by lowering the mandible. The lip protrusion must be accentuated as the orifice opens to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. As the vocal force is increased, the labial orifice is further elongated vertically by lowering the mandible. The phoneme will then migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. When compared with the phoneme [ɔ] sung within the basic pitch range, the tongue is slightly more rounded from the tip to the dorsum. The dorsum is backed and slightly grooved. The tongue root is more deeply grooved than when the phoneme is sung in the basic pitch range. The back orifice is formed at the upper tongue-root position at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased by lowering the mandible. The tongue-backing at the dorsum is less accentuated, and the phoneme [ɔ] migrates toward the neutral phoneme [ʌ]. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly a distance of approximately seven millimeters from its position in the stable vowel pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics.
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is during the production of the phoneme [ɔ] in the basic vowel pitch range; as the vocal force is increased, the lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is two centimeters lower than it is when this phoneme [ɔ] is sung in the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharyngeal cavity is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall. The phoneme [ɔ] has no nasality when it is sung within the first migration pitch range.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.In comparison with their position for singing the phoneme [ɔ] within the first migration pitch range, the lips are flexibly tense and protruded. Protrusion must not be confused with lip-rounding, which is the characteristic of the following phoneme, the basic vowel [ô]. Lip protrusion involves thrusting the lips forward to increase the length of the neck of the labial orifice. This neck provides stability to the phoneme when it is sung within this high pitch range. Lip protrusion occurs only in the production of the low back phoneme [ɔ], the high back phoneme [u], and the high central phoneme [ɜ] in the basic vowel pitch range and first and second migration pitch ranges. It is used in the second migration pitch range of the phonemes [ɑ], [ʌ], [ô], [o], [u], and [u] when the vocal force is increased above mezzo forte intensity.
The labial orifice is elongated vertically from the position assumed during the production of [ɔ] in the first migration. The elongation is made by lowering the mandible. As vocal force is increased, the elongation is accentuated.
Tongue.When compared with its position for singing the phoneme [ɔ] within the first migration pitch range, the tongue retains a similar conformation from the tip to the predorsum. It is lower at the mediodorsum and postdorsum. The backing is more accentuated than it was for the first migration pitch range. The tongue is shallowly grooved from the dorsum to the base of the root. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately four millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The back orifice is formed at the postdorsal position at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The front cavity is larger than the back cavity. As vocal force is increased, this position is accentuated. The phoneme sung is that of the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than the position assumed in producing the phoneme [ɔ] in the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is only slightly lower than it is when the phoneme [ɔ] is produced in the first migration pitch range. The tilt of the thyroid remains unchanged. As vocal force is increased, the larynx is lowered approximately four millimeters. The conformation of the pharynx is approximately the same.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC VOWEL OPEN [ô]
(See pp. 318 and 319 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Phoneticians do not include this phoneme as a sound of the English language. It is the sound of the open Italian [ô]. However, for a singer or for a teacher of voice the sound is indispensable as a teaching tool for the proper pronunciation of English sounds. It is also an efficient phonemic choice for maximum sonority in song.
This phoneme is used in all [ou] sounds where the [o] is a stressed syllable, and where an open sound is preferred to the closed tense [o]; the off glide (diphthong) to the [u] must be reduced to a minimum. The usual substitution for this phoneme is the open [ɔ], which is used within the British Stage dialect (See p. 236.) Singers of English cannot use the [ɔ] phoneme when singing such words as roll, cold, smoke, dose, boast, roam, sew, and holy. In many instances the closed tense [o] may be substituted for [ô] particularly in piano and pianissimo passages (Record 5, Bands 7, 9, 11, 13) in the art song and German lieder.
Type.Mid-back, half-closed, slightly rounded, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely rounded, but the labial orifice is slightly smaller and rounder than it is for singing the phoneme [ɔ] in both vertical and transverse dimensions. The singer should conceive of this phoneme as a rounded open [ô], not as a member of the [ɔ] phoneme. To produce the phoneme [ô], lip protrusion is to be avoided; rather, the outer edges of the lips are drawn together in a circular formation without disturbing the volume of the oral cavity or the openness of the labial orifice. As vocal force is increased, the lip-rounding must be maintained to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. However, as the intensity of the sound reaches the level of mezzo forte to forte, the labial orifice tends to be more open as the singer attempts to gain greater sonority. The phoneme then migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue arch is higher at the postdorsal, prevelar area than during the production of the vowel [ɔ]. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the upper root area is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately nine millimeters from its passive position and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The small back orifice forms a loosely coupled system, and it, with the small front orifice, gives to the vowel its characteristic [ô] quality. As vocal force is increased, tongue-backing is slightly decreased, thus disintegrating the back orifice and causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is held at a slightly higher position than it is for producing the vowel [ɔ]. The vertical opening is approximately one inch between the front teeth. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered slightly, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. This action, combined with slight relaxation of the front orifice and the alteration of the back orifice, causes the phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal lowering is approximately the same as it is for producing the low back and central vowels, but the tilt of the thyroid cartilage is extreme in order to stabilize and add tension to the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is held firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavity. The uvula is tense and away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.Lip-rounding and tension of the lips are the same as they are for the phoneme [o] sung within the stable vowel pitch range. A low mandibular position keeps the labial orifice open to preserve the open characteristic of this phoneme. Retaining the open [ô] in sung sounds throughout the first migration pitch range is possible only when the vocal force demanded ranges from mezzo forte to forte. When pianissimo sounds are required, the closed [o] is substituted because the damped-out high partials have a soft effect and because this phoneme provides a greater resistance for vocal control.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is arched slightly more from tip to predorsum than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. The tongue is grooved and lowered at the dorsum and root. It is not grooved at the point of greatest constriction where the back orifice is formed and where the postdorsum is close to the pharyngeal wall at the second cervical vertebra.
The tongue-backing is extreme. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force increases, tongue-backing slightly decreases, disintegrating the back orifice and causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is slightly lower than it is for the phoneme [ô] sung within the basic vowel pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered, increasing the vertical dimension of the labial orifice and oral cavity at the blade-dorsal position. This action, combined with the relaxing of the front orifice and the widening of the back orifice, causes the phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than it is when this phoneme [ô] is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the cartilage is not changed.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum remains pressed against the pharyngeal wall. The sound is free of nasality.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.In comparison with their position when the phoneme is sung within the first modification pitch range, the lips are flexibly tense and rounded rather than protruded. While learning to sing this phoneme within the second migration pitch range, the neutral vowel [ʌ] should be sung without attempts to achieve proper lip-rounding. The phoneme should be sung with the lips loose and flaccid. When the vocalic sound is stabilized with proper breath support, the lip-rounding should be accentuated by changing the labial orifice to a slightly rounded rather than elongated position. The slight lip-rounding and the large labial orifice causes this phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u]. Such a migration or substitution is vocally permissible. However, the singer who is seeking vocal refinement will learn to control this phoneme in the upper pitch ranges for greater intelligibility.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue conformation from tip to the blade is the same as it is when the phoneme [ô] is produced within the first migration pitch range. The dorsum of the tongue is lowered. Tongue-backing is accentuated. The orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the postdorsum is close to the pharyngeal wall between the second and the third cervical vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately three millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As the vocal force is increased, the labial orifice becomes less tense, the tongue-backing is less accentuated and the phoneme migrates to [u].
Mandible. The mandible is held at a lower position than it is for producing the phoneme within the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandibular lowering is accentuated, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the labial orifice and the oral cavity at the blade-dorsal position. As the labial orifice becomes elongated and less rounded, the phoneme migrates to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is one centimeter lower than it is when the phoneme [ô] is sung within the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains unchanged.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum remains firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE VOWEL
CLOSED [o]
(See pp. 318 and 319 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The secret of singing this mid-back, closed vowel correctly is to respect its production within the intensity levels of piano and double piano. In some instances in lieder the phoneme open [ô] will sound open and harsh; such passages are invariably marked p or pp. Within these passages the vowel [o] is most beautiful (Records 1-4, Band 17).
Type.Mid-back, closed, rounded, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tense and the rounding is quite extreme. The labial orifice is approximately one inch in its vertical and transverse dimensions. When vocal force is increased, the labial orifice tends to become more relaxed as the singer attempts to attain maximum sonority. The phoneme then migrates to the basic vowel [ô].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is flattened and with a shallow groove from the tip to the predorsum. The tongue arch is considerably lower and flattened from the blade to the mediodorsal area, but from the postdorsal area to the root the arch is the same as that assumed during the production of the open [ô]. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the postdorsum is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The small back orifice forms a loosely coupled system with the small front orifice, and gives the vowel its characteristic [o] quality. The front cavity is larger than the back cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately eight millimeters from its position in a passive state and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force is increased, the tongue-backing is slightly decreased, disintegrating the back orifice and relaxing the labial orifice causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is held slightly lower than it is for producing the basic vowel [ô]. The vertical opening between the front teeth is approximately one and one-quarter inches. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible remains fixed while the front and back orifices are relaxed to permit the singer to attain maximum sonority. The vowel then migrates to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is six centimeters lower than it is during the production of the open basic vowel [ô]. The extreme forward tilt of the thyroid cartilage is approximately the same as that assumed during the production of [o].
Velum.The velum is held firmly against the pharyngeal wall and prevents any sound from passing into the nasal cavity. The uvula is tensed and held away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips retain the rounded tension required for singing this phoneme within the basic vowel pitch range. The labial orifice is opened by lowering the mandible; as the vocal force is increased, the orbicular tension of the lips is relaxed and the mandibular lowering is accented, thus causing the phoneme to migrate toward the basic vowel [ô].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and predorsum form a concave, shallowly grooved depression. The dorsum is extremely arched and backed and is not grooved. The tongue root has a shallow groove. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the postdorsum is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the space between the second and third vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As the vocal force increases, the labial orifice relaxes somewhat, the tongue is less backed, and the phoneme migrates to the quality alternate vowel open [u] as the sonority of the phoneme is increased.
Mandible. The mandible is held slightly lower than it is when the phoneme [o] is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity at the blade-palatal position.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased slightly. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is not as accentuated.
Velum.The posterior-superior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with their position for the phoneme [o] sung within the first migration pitch range, the lips are flexibly tense and rounded rather than protruded, very similar to the position assumed during the production of open [ô] within the second migration pitch range. The basic phonemic position sung is that of the quality alternate vowel [u] but with slight lip protrusion; as vocal force is increased, the lips are less rounded and the labial orifice is opened slightly by lowering the mandible. The sonority of the phoneme is increased as the vowel [o] migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is less depressed at the blade, predorsal position than it is when the phoneme is sung within the first migration pitch range. The tongue-backing and arching of the dorsum are unchanged. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the postdorsum-pharyngeal wall position at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately five millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As the vocal force is increased, the labial orifice becomes less tense, the tongue-backing is less accentuated and the phoneme migrates to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is held at a lower position than it is for producing the phoneme [o] within the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandibular lowering is accentuated, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. Lowering the mandible is the basic movement affecting the labial orifice, oral cavity, and tongue position. The combined movements of these three anatomical parts cause the phoneme [o] to migrate to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one centimeter from the position assumed while producing the phoneme [o] in the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The thyroid tilt does not change.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY ALTERNATE VOWEL (u)
(See pp. 320 and 321 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.High back, closed, rounded, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely protruded with the labial orifice open slightly more than it is during the production of the closed vowel [o] but not as open as it is for the basic vowel [ô]. The labial orifice is elongated vertically. As vocal force is increased, the lip protrusion is held firmly tense to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. The labial orifice is increased in its vertical dimension. This phoneme does not migrate to another vowel when sung within the basic vowel pitch range if lip protrusion is held firmly tense.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue arch is considerably depressed from the blade to the medio-dorsal area as it is during the production of the vowel [o]. The oral cavity is nearly symmetrical in shape from the tongue blade to the medio-dorsal area. The tongue is slightly grooved from the blade to the root. The tongue is backed as extremely as it was during the production of the vowel [o]; therefore, the back orifice creates a loosely coupled system.
The pharyngeal cavity is equal in area to the back cavity. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction where the postdorsum is closest to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly a distance of approximately ten millimeters from its position in a passive state and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As the vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased by lowering the mandible to permit the singer to attain greater sonority. If the lip protrusion is preserved, the vowel does not migrate when it is sung within the basic vowel pitch range.
Mandible. The mandible is raised slightly higher than it is for producing the vowel [o]. The vertical opening between the front teeth is approximately one inch. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered slightly to permit the singer to attain greater sonority. If lip protrusion is preserved, this phoneme does not migrate to another phoneme when it is sung within the basic vowel pitch range.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is not as low as it is for producing the vowel closed [o] but its lowered position is identical to its position for other back vowels. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is extreme and identical to that assumed during the production of [o].
Velum.The velum is held firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavities. The uvula is tense and held away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely protruded more than they were in singing the phoneme [u] sung within the basic vowel pitch range. Without lip protrusion the phoneme [u] migrates immediately to the neutral vowel [ʌ]. The labial orifice is elongated in its vertical dimension by lowering the mandible. As vocal force is increased, the elongation of the labial orifice is accentuated if lip protrusion is preserved.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue height and arching are the same from the tip to the predorsum as they were for the phoneme [u] sung in its basic vowel position. The dorsum is less backed but more deeply grooved. The tongue root is also grooved. The vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased by lowering the mandible. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the postdorsum-pharyngeal wall position at the level of the third cervical vertebra. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately five millimeters from its position in the stable vowel pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity.
As vocal force is increased, the tongue position is accentuated. Provided the lip protrusion is increased, the phoneme does not migrate when it is sung within the first migration pitch range.
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is when the phoneme [u] is sung in the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandibular lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than it is when the phoneme [u] is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased; the tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains unchanged. As vocal force increases, the laryngeal lowering is accentuated.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips remain tensely protruded when singing within the second modification pitch range. The labial orifice is elongated vertically. As vocal force is increased, lips and orifice are stabilized. The phoneme does not migrate.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is firmly pressed against the bottom front teeth. The tongue arch at the tip and blade is the same as it is when the phoneme [u] is sung within the first migration pitch range. The dorsum is lowered and more deeply grooved. The tongue-backing is the same. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the postdorsum-pharyngeal wall position at the level of the third cervical vertebra. The base of the root is drawn anteriorly, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx and the valecula. This position of the epiglottis is the same as that assumed in the first migration pitch range. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. As vocal force increases, the position of the tongue is stabilized. The phoneme [u] does not migrate provided the lip protrusion is not reduced.
Mandible. The mandible is slightly lower than it is when this phoneme is sung in the first migration pitch range. As vocal force increases, extreme tension in the protruded lip position stabilizes the mandible.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one and one-half centimeters from the laryngeal position assumed during the production of [u] within the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased a similar distance. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage increases as the vocal force increases; the laryngeal position is stabilized.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
DRILLS AND VISUAL ANALYSIS
Movement of these anatomical parts may be observed in the radiographs which follow.
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE BASIC VOWEL [i]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [I].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [i] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [I].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [I] for the phoneme [i].
Fig. 112. The Basic Vowel [i]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 300 | 1950 | 2750 |
| Female | 400 | 2250 | 3300 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
CLOSED VOWEL [ē]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, this phoneme [ē] is stable and does not migrate.
First Migration Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme [ē] is stable and does not migrate.
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain the tongue position for the phoneme [ē], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 113. The Quality Alternate Vowel Closed [ē]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 350 | 1850 | 2650 |
| Female | 450 | 2125 | 3450 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
VOWEL [I]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, this phoneme [I] is stable and does not migrate.
First Migration Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme [I] is stable and does not migrate.
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain the tongue position for the phoneme [I], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 114. The Quality Alternate Vowel [I]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 375 | 1810 | 2500 |
| Female | 475 | 2100 | 3450 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE BASIC VOWEL OPEN [e]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [ε].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [e] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [ε].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [ε] for the phoneme [e].
Fig. 115. The Basic Vowel Open [ē]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 450 | 1800 | 2480 |
| Female | 500 | 1900 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
VOWEL [ε]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [a].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [ε] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [a].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [a] for the phoneme [ε].
Fig. 116. The Quality Alternate Vowel [ē]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 530 | 1500 | 2500 |
| Female | 550 | 1750 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE BASIC VOWEL [ӕ]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
This phoneme [ӕ] is seldom used in song because of its open blatancy. When it is used within this pitch range, it should be sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should always substitute the phoneme [a] for the phoneme [ӕ].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [a] for the phoneme [ӕ].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should substitute the phoneme [a] for the phoneme [ӕ].
Fig. 117. The Basic Vowel [ӕ]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 620 | 1490 | 2250 |
| Female | 600 | 1650 | 3000 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
VOWEL [a]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme [a] migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [ɑ].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [a] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [ɑ].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [ʌ] for the phoneme [ɑ].
Fig. 118. The Quality Alternate Vowel [a]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 550 | 1200 | 2500 |
| Female | 675 | 1555 | 3300 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE BASIC VOWEL [a]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [ʌ].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [ɑ] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [ʌ].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [ʌ] for the phoneme [ɑ].
Fig. 119. The Basic Vowel [ʌ]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 700 | 1200 | 2600 |
| Female | 700 | 1300 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
VOWEL [ɔ]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should attempt to preserve the integrity of the vowel at all intensity levels. Lip-rounding should be maintained in crescendo and forte passages.
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [ɔ] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [ʌ].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [ʌ] for the phoneme [ɔ].
Fig. 120. The Quality Alternate Vowel [ɔ]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 610 | 1000 | 2600 |
| Female | 625 | 1245 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE BASIC VOWEL OPEN [ô]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should attempt to preserve the integrity of the vowel at all intensity levels. Lip-rounding should be maintained in crescendo and forte passages.
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [ô] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [u].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [u] for the phoneme [ô].
Fig. 121. The Basic Vowel Open [ô]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 490 | 900 | 2580 |
| Female | 600 | 1200 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
VOWEL CLOSED [o]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [u].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [o] migrating more completely toward the phoneme open [u].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [u] for [ô].
Fig. 122. The Quality Alternate Vowel Closed [o]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 450 | 700 | 2500 |
| Female | 500 | 1000 | 3000 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE QUALITY ALTERNATE
VOWEL [u]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, this phoneme [u] is stable and does not migrate.
First Migration Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme [u] is stable and does not migrate.
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should accentuate lip protrusion, maintain tongue position, but use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 123 The Quality Alternate Vowel [u]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 400 | 720 | 2500 |
| Female | 425 | 900 | 3000 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE BASIC VOWEL [u]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme [u] migrating toward the phoneme [u].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [u] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [u].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain lip and tongue positions for the phoneme [u], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 124. The Basic Vowel [u]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 350 | 640 | 2550 |
| Female | 400 | 800 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE NEUTRAL VOWEL [ʌ]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, this phoneme [ʌ] is stable and does not migrate.
First Migration Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme [ʌ] is stable and does not migrate.
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain the tongue position for the phoneme [ʌ], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 125. The Neutral Vowel [ʌ]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 500 | 1200 | 2675 |
| Female | 550 | 1300 | 3250 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE HIGH CENTRAL,
ROUNDED VOWEL [ɜ]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte, or when making a crescendo, this phoneme [ɜ] is stable and does not migrate.
First Migration Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme [ɜ] is stable and does not migrate.
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, or singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain lip and tongue positions for the phoneme [ɜ], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 126. The High Central Rounded Vowel [ɜ]
| F1 | F2 | F3 | |
| Male | 400 | 1150 | 2500 |
| Female | 450 | 1350 | 3050 |
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE ROUNDED FRONTAL
VOWEL [y] LONG UMLAUT Ü AND
[y] SHORT UMLAUT Ü
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte, or when making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [y].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [y] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [Y].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [Y] for the phoneme [y].
Fig. 127. The Rounded Frontal Vowel [y] Long Umlaut Ü and [Y] Short Umlaut Ü
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE ROUNDED
FRONTAL VOWEL [ø]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range this phoneme [ø] is stable and does not migrate.
First Migration Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme [ø] is stable and does not migrate.
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain the tongue position for the phoneme [ø], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 128. The Rounded Frontal Vowel [ø]
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE ROUNDED
FRONTAL VOWEL [œ]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [a].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [œ] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [a].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of substituting the phoneme [a] for the phoneme [œ].
Fig. 129. The Rounded Frontal Vowel [œ]
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE FRENCH
NASAL VOWEL [ε̃]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [ã].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [ε̃] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [ã].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain lip-rounding and the tongue position for the phoneme [ε̃], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 130. The French Nasal Vowel [ε̃]—Bien
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE FRENCH
NASAL VOWEL [œ̃]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [a].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range the singer should think of the phoneme [œ] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [a].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, or singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain lip-rounding and the tongue position for the phoneme [a], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 131. The French Nasal Vowel [œ̃]—Chacun
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE FRENCH
NASAL VOWEL [ɑ̃]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme [ʌ].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [ɑ̃] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [ʌ].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, singing forte, or making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain the tongue position for the phoneme [ʌ], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 132. The French Nasal Vowel [ɑ̃]—Quand
MIGRATION DRILLS FOR THE FRENCH
NASAL VOWEL [õ]
Transpose these drills into a key suitable for the student.
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, this phoneme should be conceived in its purest form and sung at intensities ranging from pianissimo to piano. When singing forte or making a crescendo, the singer should think of the phoneme migrating only slightly toward the phoneme closed [o].
First Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, the singer should think of the phoneme [õ] migrating more completely toward the phoneme [u].
Second Migration Pitch Range
When singing within this pitch range, when singing forte, or when making a crescendo, the singer should attempt to maintain lip-rounding and the tongue position for the phoneme [u], but he should use a lower jaw position for the topmost note.
Fig. 133. The French Nasal Vowel [õ]—Garҫon
Fig. 134. The Semivowels [w], [l], and [r]
Fig. 135. The Stop Plosives [b], [p], [d], and [t]
Fig. 136. The Stop Plosives [g] and [k]
Fig. 137. The Continuant Fricatives [f], [v], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [Ʒ]
Fig. 138. The Continuant Fricatives [ϴ], [ð], and [x]
Fig. 140. The Nasal Consonants [m], [n], and [ŋ]
ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC VOWEL [u]
(See pp. 322 and 323 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The tense closed vowel [u] is not accepted as a good vocalic sound by many voice teachers because of the small tense labial orifice created by extreme lip-rounding and the small back orifice which is caused by the high tongue-backing characteristic of this phoneme. The small front and back orifices create considerable back pressure or resistance against the vocal folds, imparting to the singer the sensation of tension and expenditure of effort. This sensation is present only when the vocal force exceeds the mezzo forte intensity level. Therefore this phoneme is used most successfully at low intensity levels. It is highly acceptable for both singer and listener when sung at pianissimo, piano, or mezzo forte intensities within any pitch area.
The closed [u] is indispensable as an interpretive tool in singing the art song in the English language. Its use is imperative in all German lieder, for the closed [u] phoneme is a highly regarded tool of prosody used by all German composers to enhance the musical text with a colorful, dark sound. For greater sonority, the phoneme will migrate naturally to the phoneme [u].
Type.High back, closed, rounded, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are rounded. The labial orifice is tense, circular, and the smallest required for production of any of the vowels. As vocal force is increased to the mezzo forte intensity level, lip-rounding is held firmly tense to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When singing sounds of intensities greater than mezzo forte, the tension of the lips is relaxed, the lip-rounding is accentuated and the phoneme migrates to the vowel [u], adding sonority to the vocalic sound.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip and blade are low and flattened. The tongue arch begins at the predorsal area and reaches its greatest height at the postdorsal-velar area. The base of the tongue root is drawn anteriorly, causing an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the valeculus and the laryngopharynx. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction where the postdorsum is closest to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second vertebra. The pharyngeal cavity is large when compared with the oral cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly a distance of approximately eighteen millimeters from its passive position and moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force is increased to piano or mezzo forte intensities, lip-rounding is maintained to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When intensities above the level of mezzo forte are sung, the tension of the labial orifice is relaxed slightly and the tongue-backing is less accentuated, causing the vowel to migrate to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is higher than it is for production of the vowel [u]. The vertical opening is approximately three-quarters of an inch between the front teeth. As the vocal force is increased above mezzo forte, the mandible is lowered slightly to permit the singer to attain greater sonority. The phoneme then migrates to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The low laryngeal position and the forward tilt of the thyroid cartilage are identical to that used for production of the vowel [u].
Velum.The velum is held firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavities. The uvula is tense and held away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are more rounded than they are in singing this phoneme within the basic vowel pitch range. The labial orifice remains tensely circular. This position is assumed at intensity levels of piano and pianissimo only within this pitch range. As the vocal force is increased, the labial orifice becomes less tense and less rounded. The tongue-backing is less accentuated, and the phoneme migrates toward the vowel [u], thereby adding sonority to the vocalic sound.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade is depressed but the dorsum is arched and extremely backed at the velar-pharyngeal wall position. The base of the tongue root is drawn anteriorly, causing an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the valec-ulus and the laryngopharynx. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the postdorsum-pharyngeal wall position at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The oral and pharyngeal cavities are approximately equal in cavity dimension. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force is increased from a mezzo piano to a forte, the labial orifice is less tense and less rounded; the dorsum is less arched and less backed, causing an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the back orifice. The phoneme then migrates toward the vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is when the phoneme [u] is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the low mandibular position is accentuated, thus causing an increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one centimeter from the position assumed during the production of the vowel [u] in the basic vowel position. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased by lowering the larynx. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is not changed. As vocal force increases, the laryngeal lowering is exaggerated, and this lowering combined with the alterations of other articulators, the phoneme migrates to the phoneme [u].
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with their position in producing the phoneme [u] in the first migration pitch range, the lips have lost their rounded tension and are protruded to assume the position of [u]. The labial orifice is elongated vertically. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the labial orifice is increased by lowering the mandible. Lip protrusion must be maintained to preserve the integrity of the phoneme.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade is slightly depressed. The dorsum is less arched and less backed than during the production of the vowel [u] in the first migration. The back orifice is wider at the point of greatest constriction at postdorsum-pharyngeal wall position. The base of the tongue root is drawn anteriorly, causing an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the lower pharynx and the valeculus. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The position of the epiglottis remains unchanged. As vocal force increases, the tongue position is stabilized. Lip protrusion causes the phoneme to migrate to the vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lowered from the position assumed during the production of [u] in the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandibular lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is raised approximately one centimeter from its position during the production of the phoneme [u] within the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is decreased by raising the larynx. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is not changed. As vocal force is increased, the laryngeal position is stabilized and the phoneme sung is that of the vowel [u].
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE NEUTRAL VOWEL [ʌ]
(See pp. 324 and 325 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The neutral vowel [ʌ] is a stressed vowel; its unstressed counterpart is known as the central schwa [ə]. Musical notation demands definite periods of duration to be observed for all unstressed vowels. Some periods are as short as a sixteenth note, others as long as a quarter note. In either event, the tongue, lip, and jaw positions of the sung sound [ə] or [ʌ] are identical. Schwa is of shorter duration as a speech sound, but as a sung sound it may be of long duration although it is always unstressed. The neutral vowel [ʌ] is a stressed sound and will substitute for other vowels as the pitch is raised or as the intensity is increased. It is an open vowel when it is sung within the stable vowel and first migration pitch ranges, but it is always a closed vowel when it is sung within the second migration pitch range. The function of the neutral vowel as a point of vowel migration has been explained in Chapter Nine under vowel migration (Fig. 103, p. 234). A thorough knowledge of these migrations will provide the teacher with an awareness of the function of this phoneme in its stressed form that will aid in solving problems of range and intelligibility.
Type.Low central, half-open, neutral, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are unrounded and not spread. The dimensions of the orifice are approximately one inch vertically and one and one-half inches laterally. The singer has a feeling of flaccidity and looseness in both face and lips while singing within the basic vowel pitch range. As the intensity is increased, the mandible is lowered, causing a vertical increase in the dimension of the labial orifice and also in the oral cavity. This phoneme does not migrate with an increase in intensity when it is sung within the basic vowel pitch range, and provided the lips retain their neutral flaccidity, the vowel becomes more sonorous.
Tongue.When this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range, the tongue must be firmly pressed against the bottom front teeth. The dorsum of the tongue is flattened to assume a low back position, creating a frontal cavity of even dimension extending from the labial orifice to the point where the upper tongue root forms a constriction near the pharyngeal wall at the base of the second cervical vertebra. At this point, the back orifice is formed and couples the oral and pharyngeal cavities. The pharyngeal cavity is smaller than the oral cavity. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately four millimeters from its position in a passive state and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. As vocal force increases, the tongue retains its flat conformation from the tip to the postdorsal area. The back orifice is slightly widened as the tongue-backing becomes less accentuated. This action together with the increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity, adds sonority to this neutral phoneme. The vowel does not migrate provided the labial orifice remains loose and flaccid.
Mandible. The mandible is stable at a half-open position with a vertical opening approximately one and one-half inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered. The phoneme does not migrate.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly lower than that assumed during the passive state (approximately six millimeters). As the intensity is increased, the laryngeal position is stabilized, but the thyroid cartilage is tilted forward by the contraction of the cricothyroid muscle to impart stability to the phonatory system and to increase the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is extended in a lax arch to the pharyngeal wall but does not make firm contact with it. This light occlusion permits a leakage of some of the sound into the nasal cavities, adding to the vowel a color characteristic which distinguishes it from the frontal [a].
First Migration Pitch Range
When compared with the neutral vowel [ʌ] sung within the stable vowel pitch range, the lips, labial orifice, tongue, mandible, laryngeal position, and velum do not change.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with its position in singing the neutral vowel within the first migration pitch range, the labial orifice is somewhat rounded as a result of lip protrusion. When the neutral vowel is sung on pitches that lie above the staff, the lips must be protruded lest the phoneme acquire a blatant sound resembling that of the open [ɑ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade is depressed. The dorsum is much lower than this phoneme when it is produced within the stable and first migration pitch range. The tongue is backed and grooved at the tongue root. The tongue-backing is not so extreme as it is during the first migration pitch range. Therefore, the point of constriction that forms the inner orifice is more open. The orifice is formed at the position of the tongue root and the pharyngeal wall at the level of the first cervical vertebra.
The pharyngeal cavity is increased in its vertical and anterior-posterior dimension by lowering the larynx. The radix of the tongue has moved anteriorly approximately twelve millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The vowel does not migrate, provided the labial orifice remains protruded and open.
Mandible. The mandible is lowered from the position assumed during the first migration, causing an increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. As vocal force is increased, the vowel does not migrate.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately eight millimeters from the position used for the production of this phoneme within the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the thyroid cartilage is tilted forward by the action of the cricothyroid muscle to impart stability to the phonatory system and to increase the tension of the thyroarytenoid muscle.
Velum.The nasal part is closed by the velum, which is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE HIGH, CENTRAL, ROUNDED VOWEL [ɜ]
(See pp. 326 and 327 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.High, central, closed, rounded, loosely coupled.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely protruded. The labial orifice is as open as it is during the production of the vowel [u]. The orifice is slightly wider in its vertical than in its transverse dimension. As vocal force is increased, the lip protrusion is held firmly tense to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. Lip protrusion must be exaggerated when the intensity is increased above mezzo forte, because this phoneme has a tendency to migrate to the neutral vowel when lip tension is slightly relaxed, and the orifice is elongated by lowering the mandible.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue arch is symmetrically rounded from the tip to the root. The base of the tongue root is drawn anteriorly, an action that increases the anterior-posterior dimension of the valeculus and the laryngopharynx. The tongue is slightly grooved at the dorsum. The root is deeply grooved. Within the oral cavity, the superior surface of the tongue is equidistant from the palate from tip to dorsum. The point of constriction where the tongue is nearest the pharyngeal wall is at the level of the first cervical vertebra. The tight coupling of the oral and pharyngeal cavities makes this phoneme singly resonant. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly ten millimeters from its position in a passive state and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics.
The singer should not produce this phoneme with the tongue in retroflex position. When the tip of the tongue is stabilized at the bottom front teeth and the lip-rounding is extreme, this phoneme is a satisfying substitute for the retroflex General American [ɝ].
Mandible. The mandible is lowered to create a vertical aperture approximately three-quarters of an inch between the front teeth. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. As the dimension of the oral cavity and labial orifice is increased, greater sonority is achieved.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is the same as it is for producing the back vowels. The forward tilt of the thyroid cartilage is decreased considerably from the position used to sing the back vowels at low intensities. The position is similar to that of the front vowels. As the vocal force increases, the tilt of the thyroid cartilage also increases.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavities. The uvula is tense and away from the pharyngeal wall.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely protruded. The labial orifice is elongated slightly more than it is during the production of the vowel [ɜ] in the stable vowel pitch range. The elongation is caused by the lowering of the mandible. As vocal force is increased, the lip protrusion must be held firmly tense to prevent a migration of this phoneme to the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue arch is symmetrically rounded from the tip to the dorsum. For this phoneme, the tongue positions of the stable vowel pitch area and first migration pitch area are identical. The rounded arch gives the phoneme [ɜ] its particular quality, and when this tongue position is coupled with the firmness of the protruded lips, the phoneme assumes great stability even when extreme vocal force is exerted.
Mandible. The mandible is lowered only slightly from the position assumed during the production of [ɜ] in the stable vowel pitch range.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is the same as it is when the phoneme [ɜ] is produced in the stable vowel pitch range.
Velum.The velum is shortened and firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavities.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips remain tensely protruded. The labial orifice is open slightly more than it is in the first migration pitch range. To acquire greater sonority at the higher pitch level, the singer must lower the mandible and retain the excessive lip protrusion so the lips are also less rounded. As vocal force is increased, the phoneme will migrate toward the neutral vowel position, an effect caused by relaxing the labial orifice and lowering the mandible.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue arch is lower at the postdorsal area than it is when the vowel is produced in the first migration. This movement causes an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx and causes the cavity to become more singly resonant. The back orifice is arched to provide the [ɜ] characteristic to the phoneme. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately six millimeters from its position in the first migration pitch range. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. When vocal force is extreme, the tongue is flattened and the phoneme migrates to the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The position of the mandible is changed little when this phoneme is sung within the first migration pitch range.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered one centimeter from its phonatory position within the first migration pitch range. This movement causes an increase in the vertical dimension of the pharynx. As vocal force is increased, this position is accentuated.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from passing into the nasal cavities.
ANALYSIS OF THE ROUNDED FRONTAL VOWEL
[y] LONG UMLAUT Ü AND [Y] SHORT UMLAUT Ü
(See pp. 328 and 329 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
The rounded frontal vowel [y] is not used in the English language, but is used extensively in German and French. When singing the German lieder and the French art song it is imperative that the student have mastered this sound within the stable vowel pitch range and its migration positions, for many beautiful tonal effects are possible when this phoneme is produced correctly.
The home base of this phoneme is the phoneme [i], and the [i] sound must be heard even though the lips are rounded to form [u]. Such lip tension builds up impedance or back pressure that should be preserved to retain the integrity of the phoneme; should the lip-rounding and the frontal tongue position be relaxed, the phoneme will be lost, and meaning within the text will suffer. The rounded frontal [Y] demands a similar lip and tongue position, but it is built on [I] and is of shorter duration in singing. The variation between these two phonemes will only be noted in the stable vowel pitch range.
Type.High front, closed, rounded.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely rounded much the same as when producing [u]. The lips must be held in this position even when vocal force is increased to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. When the vocal force is above a mezzo forte, the phoneme migrates to the vowel [Y], which has the phoneme [I] as its home base.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue blade and dorsum are in contact with the palate at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is grooved along the medial raphe from the blade to the root. The tongue groove becomes progressively pronounced from the postdorsal area to the tongue root, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal space during the utterance of this vowel. The inner orifice is at the point of greatest constriction at the predorsal-palatal position.
The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. As the vocal force increases to forte or louder, the muscular tension of the tongue is decreased laterally by a lowering of the mandible. This combined action increases the vertical dimension of the oral cavity at the dorsal area. If the labial orifice remains tensely rounded, the vowel will migrate to the umlaut [Y], whose home base sound is [I].
Mandible. The mandible is closed to permit a vertical opening of one-half inch between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased above forte the mandible is lowered slightly to increase both the front and back orifices and to enlarge the front cavity. This action causes a migration of the phoneme toward the umlaut sound [Y].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly lower than that assumed during the passive state but slightly higher than it is for singing the neutral vowel [ʌ]. AS the intensity increases, a lower laryngeal position is assumed to impart stability to the phonating system. The lower position is accompanied by a slight tilt of the thyroid cartilage, which increases the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall suggesting a lax condition.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice. The lips retain the tensely rounded position used in the stable vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the labial orifice does not change at low intensity levels. As the vocal force is increased above a mezzo forte, the lips are less rounded and the labial orifice is increased in its vertical dimension. The phoneme then migrates to the umlaut [Y].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is lowered slightly from the blade to the postdorsal area, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The blade and dorsum are in contact with the palate at each lateral tooth line. The tongue groove extends from the blade to the root, and it becomes deeper at the root. The back orifice extends from the blade to the mediodorsum at the palatal area. The oral cavity is smaller than the pharyngeal cavity. As vocal force increases, the muscular tension of the tongue is decreased laterally by lowering the mandible. This combined action increases the vertical dimension of the oral cavity from the blade to the dorsum, and the vowel migrates to the umlaut [Y].
Mandible. During the production of low intensity sounds, the mandible is lowered from its basic vowel position. As the intensity increases above mezzo forte, the mandible is lowered as it is in the production of the phoneme [I].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is lowered approximately one centimeter from the laryngeal position used to produce the umlaut vowel [y] in the stable vowel position. As vocal force is increased above mezzo forte, the larynx is lowered slightly to increase the vertical dimension of the pharynx. The forward tilt of the thyroid cartilage is increased.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall, and the uvula is shortened. These positions suggest a more tense condition than in the stable vowel pitch area.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.When compared with the position used for the first migration pitch range, the lips are protruded to preserve the integrity of the phoneme [y]. The labial orifice is much more open and less tense; the opening is increased by lowering the mandible.
Tongue Position. The tip of the tongue is pressed firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is lowered from the blade to the dorsum, the result of lowering the mandible. The tongue has a shallow groove from the tip to the dorsum, and it is deeply grooved from the dorsum to the root. The blade and dorsum are in contact with the palatal area at each lateral tooth line. The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the blade-alveolar ridge position. Tongue-fronting tends to preserve the integrity of the phoneme [y] even though the pitch is high. As vocal force is increased, the combined action of the described movements are accentuated. The vowel produced is the umlaut [Y].
Mandible. The mandible is lowered slightly, an action that becomes more pronounced as the vocal force is intensified.
Laryngeal Position.When this phoneme [y] is produced in the second migration pitch range, the laryngeal position is about the same as that assumed in the first migration pitch range. The laryngeal distention is accomplished at lower pitch ranges and is sustained into the second migration ranges without appreciable change. The vowel sung within the second migration pitch range is the umlaut [Y]. The migration is identical to that of [i] to [I]. The thyroid tilt is approximately the same as that assumed during the production of the umlaut [Y] within the first migration pitch range.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF ROUNDED FRONTAL VOWEL [ø]
(See pp. 330 and 331 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.High front, closed, rounded.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely rounded and protruded. The labial orifice is less open than it is for producing the vowel [ē] in the stable vowel area. When vocal force is increased, the extreme rounded position of the lips must be held firmly to preserve the integrity of the umlaut sound. The sound of the phoneme [ē] must be heard as the basic phoneme upon which this vowel is formed.
Tongue. The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum are in contact with the palatal area at each lateral tooth line. The spreading of the dorsum laterally is identical to that tongue position assumed when producing the vowel [e]. This lateral spreading is the significant characteristic of this phoneme. The tongue is grooved along the median raphe from the blade to the root; the groove is more pronounced from the postdorsal area to the base of the root in the stable vowel pitch range than it is when the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx is increased.
The back orifice is located at the point of greatest constriction at the pre-palatal-predorsum position. The pharyngeal cavity is long and wide when compared with the oral cavity. As vocal force is increased to preserve the integrity of the phoneme.
When vocal force is increased, the lip-rounding becomes less tense. The high frontal position of the tongue is less accentuated, and the vowel migrates toward the rounded frontal vowel [œ].
Mandible. The mandible is closed, permitting a vertical opening of one-half inch between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased above forte, the mandible is lowered slightly, increasing both front and back orifices and enlarging the front cavity, causing a migration of the phoneme toward the umlaut sound [œ].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered to a position slightly lower than the passive position and approximately the same as that used in producing the vowel [e]. As the vocal force increases, a lower laryngeal position is assumed to impart stability to the phonatory system. The lower laryngeal position is accompanied by a slight tilt of the thyroid cartilage, which increases the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The superior-posterior heel of the velum rests firmly against the pharyngeal wall to prevent sound from leaking into the nasal cavities. The uvula is suspended downward away from the pharyngeal wall into the oropharynx, thus suggesting a relaxed muscular state.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips remain tensely rounded and protruded; the labial orifice is as rounded as it is for producing the vowel [o]. As the vocal force is increased, the lips retain their state of tension, but the labial orifice is slightly opened by lowering the mandible.
Tongue.Because the lips are extremely rounded, holding the tongue firm in a high frontal position is difficult, but it is necessary for the proper production of this umlaut sound. The singer must constantly listen for the sound of [e] to emerge within the sung word; for listening will help him to achieve proper tongue position for the phoneme [ø].
The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and dorsum are in firm contact with the palate at the lateral tooth line. The tongue groove is accentuated at the postdorsal-root position, causing an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx at this point. The high arch of the medio-dorsal position is reduced, but the tongue-fronting is sustained, to form the back orifice at the prepalatal-alveolar ridge position. As vocal force is increased, the tongue-fronting is lost because of lowering the mandible, which increases the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The phoneme then migrates to the umlaut [œ].
Mandible. The mandible is lowered approximately one centimeter from the position assumed within the stable vowel pitch range. This act assists in increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position remains the same as when the phoneme [ø] is reproduced within the stable vowel pitch range.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall, and the uvular portion is drawn and shortened, thus suggesting an increase in muscular tension.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips remain tensely rounded and protruded; the labial orifice retains its orbicular opening without change in dimension.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth; the blades and dorsum are in contact with the palatal area at each lateral tooth line. The tongue is less arched from the blade to the dorsum than it is when this phoneme is produced in the first migration pitch range. This lowering increases the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The tongue groove is deeper and more accentuated at the postdorsal-root position, and thus increases the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx at that position.
The tongue-fronting is maintained to preserve the integrity of the phoneme but not so acutely as when the phoneme is produced within the first migration pitch range. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the tongue blade-alveolar ridge position. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the oral cavity is increased to attain greater sonority. The phoneme [ø] then migrates toward the umlaut [œ], which has the phoneme [ε] as its home base.
Mandible. The position of the mandible is unchanged when it is compared with the production of the phoneme [ø] within the first migration pitch range. The increase in oral cavity dimension is entirely caused by tongue movement.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered eight millimeters from the position assumed for the production of the phoneme [ø] in the first migration position. This movement increases the vertical length of the pharynx and stabilizes the vocal mechanism. The thyroid cartilage tilts forward very slightly, and increases the tension of the vocal folds during the production of the higher pitched sounds.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall. The uvular portion is shortened and suggests a condition of muscular tension.
ANALYSIS OF THE ROUNDED FRONTAL VOWEL [œ]
(See pp. 332 and 333 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Mid-front, half-open, rounded.
Labial Orifice.The lips are rounded and slightly protruded. The labial orifice increases vertically compared to its size in producing the phoneme [ø] within the stable vowel pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the phoneme tends to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [ε] as the mandible is lowered. If lip-rounding is maintained, the integrity of this phoneme [œ] may be preserved in a sonorous, forte sound.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The postdorsal edges of the tongue are in contact with the palatal area at the lateral tooth line. The tongue is not grooved from its tip to the mediodorsal position. It is deeply grooved from the postdorsum to the base of the tongue root, to increase the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the predorsal-mediopalatal position. As vocal force increases, the oral cavity is increased vertically by lowering the mandible, thus causing the vowel [œ] to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a]. If lip-rounding is sustained, the integrity of the phoneme [œ] may be maintained in a sonorous, forte sound.
Mandible. The mandible is held at a position one-half inch lower than it is when the vowel [ø] is produced within the stable vowel pitch range. The vertical opening between the teeth at the center is approximately one and one-quarter inches. As vocal force increases, the mandible is slightly lowered, to increase the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The phoneme [œ] then migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [a]. If lip-rounding is sustained, the integrity of the phoneme may be preserved through a sonorous forte.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is one-eighth inch lower than it is for production of the phoneme [ø] within the stable vowel pitch range. The thyroid cartilage is tilted forward from its passive position to increase the tension upon the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the posterior pharyngeal wall. The uvula is, suspended downward into the oropharynx, suggesting a state of relaxed musculature.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are rounded and slightly protruded. The labial orifice is increased vertically approximately one-half inch from the position used for the production of phoneme [ø] in the stable vowel pitch range. As the vocal force is increased above mezzo forte, lip-rounding must be accentuated to preserve the integrity of the phoneme.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip and blade are symmetrically rounded and ungrooved. The dorsum and the root are deeply grooved. The point of greatest constriction is long; it extends from the blade-alveolar ridge position to the predorsum-prepalatal position. The cavity system is tightly coupled, suggesting a singly resonant system. As vocal force is increased, the characteristic umlaut sound may be preserved by lip-rounding. If the lip-rounding disintegrates with the increased vocal force, the phoneme will migrate to the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible. The position of the mandible does not change when the phoneme [œ] is sung in the stable and first migration pitch ranges.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one-quarter of an inch from the position assumed during the production of the phoneme [œ] within the stable vowel pitch range. This movement increases the vertical dimension of the pharynx and aids in stabilizing the phonatory tube. The slight forward tilt of the thyroid cartilage increases the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the posterior pharyngeal wall. The uvula is drawn upward to increase the thickness of the velum through muscular tension.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are rounded and slightly protruded. The vertical dimension of the labial orifice does not change when the phoneme is sung in the first or second migration pitch ranges. When vocal force is increased, lip-rounding must be sustained. When it is not sustained, the phoneme will migrate to the neutral vowel [ʌ]. High notes require less lip-rounding.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip and blade are symmetrically rounded and ungrooved. The dorsum and root are deeply grooved, creating an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx at the root position and an increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity at the dorsal-velar position. The point of greatest constriction is located at the blade-alveolar ridge position. When this phoneme is sung in the second migration pitch range, the back orifice is more clearly defined than it is when the phoneme is sung in the first migration pitch range. The cavity system is tightly coupled, suggesting a singly resonant system. The lip-rounding and tongue-fronting are prime factors in determining the sound of this phoneme. Sonority is attained by the large pharyngeal space. As vocal force is increased, the integrity of the phoneme may be preserved by lip-rounding. If the labial orifice distintegrates with increased vocal force, the phoneme will migrate to the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandibular position used for singing the phoneme [œ] remains the same within both the first and second migration pitch ranges. The major change is in the tongue position. As vocal force is increased, the mandible may be lowered slightly to attain greater sonority. If tongue-fronting and lip-rounding are not sustained, the phoneme will migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered one-quarter of an inch from the position assumed for the production of this phoneme within the first migration pitch range. This extreme lowering increases the vertical dimension of the pharynx and serves to stabilize the phonatory tube. The thyroid cartilage is tilted farther forward than it is for the production of this phoneme within the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the above movements are accentuated, and the phoneme migrates toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Velum.The velum is pressed firmly against the pharyngeal wall. The velum is short and thickened, thus suggesting muscular tension.
ANALYSIS OF THE FRENCH NASAL VOWEL [ε̃]
(See pp. 334 and 335 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Mid-front, half-open, spread, nasal.
Any vowel sound can be nasalized by lowering the soft palate and allowing a part of the air stream to exit through the nose. In French, four vowel sounds are regularly nasalized when they occur in certain situations. These vowels are [ε̃], [œ̃], [ɑ̃], and [õ].
Except for the velar position, the French nasals [ε̃], [œ̃], [ɑ̃], and [õ] require the same tongue, lip, mandibular, and laryngeal position as the basic or quality alternate vowels upon which they they are formed. Therefore, they will migrate as those vowels do (Fig. 103, p. 234). The nasal [ε̃] is a rounded frontal vowel formed on [ӕ]. The migration of this phoneme in different pitch areas will conform to the phoneme [a].
Labial Orifice.The lips are in the same position as that used in producing the vowel [ӕ]. They are wider transversely than vertically. The muscular tension of the lips is maintained. As vocal force is increased, the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible, but the characteristic spreading demanded of the phoneme is maintained. As the cavity is enlarged, the phoneme migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip blade and predorsum are not grooved. The groove extends from the mediodorsal area to the tongue root.
The radix of the tongue is relaxed, permitting the epiglottis to be closer to the pharyngeal wall than when this phoneme [ε̃] is produced as an unnasal sound. This position of the epiglottis closes the opening to the vestibule and alters the characteristic of that resonator. The tongue is extremely arched at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal position where the back of the orifice is formed.
The front cavity is smaller than the back cavity. As vocal force is increased, the oral cavity is increased vertically by lowering the mandible, causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible. The position of the mandible is identical to that assumed in producing the quality alternate vowel [ε̃]. The vertical opening is approximately one and one-quarter inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is slightly lowered, increasing the vertical dimension. The phoneme [ε̃] then migrates toward the quality alternate phoneme [ã].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is raised to a position six millimeters above the position used to produce the vowel [ε]. As vocal force is increased, the lower laryngeal position is accentuated to stabilize the phonatory tube and the thyroid cartilage tilts forward slightly to increase the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is extended posteriorly in a slight arc into the oropharynx, permitting direct access of the phonated sound through the open nasal port into the nasal cavity.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are relaxed and in the same position as they are for producing the vowel [ε] in its first migration pitch range. The labial orifice is wider transversely than vertically. As vocal force increases, the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible. As the oral cavity is enlarged, the phoneme migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [ã].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip, blade, and predorsum are not grooved. A deep groove extends from the mediodorsum to the tongue root, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx.
The radix of the tongue has moved anteriorly approximately five millimeters, and moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The tongue arch is the same as it is in the production of the phoneme [ε̃] in the stable vowel pitch range. The point of greatest constriction is at the mediodorsum-medio-palatal position, but this orifice is more open than it is when [ε̃] is sung in the stable vowel pitch range. The lower position of the mandible causes an increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. As vocal force is increased, the oral cavity is increased in its vertical dimension by lowering the mandible, thereby causing the vowel to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [a].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is for singing this phoneme in the basic vowel pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the oral cavity is increased in its vertical dimension, causing the phoneme [ε̃] to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [ã].
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is approximately one and one-half centimeters lower than it is when [ε̃] is sung in the basic vowel pitch range. This lower position increases the vertical dimension of the pharynx. As vocal force is increased, the laryngeal lowering is accentuated to stabilize the phonatory tube. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains approximately the same as it is for the phoneme [ε̃] sung in the stable vowel pitch range.
Velum.The velum and uvular appendage is extended downward into the oropharynx in a slightly arched position, thus permitting the phonated sound to pass into the nasal cavities.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are more relaxed than they are when the vowel is sung in its first migration pitch range. The labial orifice is the same vertically and transversely. As vocal force is increased, the orifice is increased vertically by lowering the mandible. This enlargement of the orifice permits the phoneme to become more sonorous.
Tongue.The high arched conformation, the degree of tongue-fronting, and the depth of the groove at the root are approximately the same as they are when this phoneme is produced in the first migration pitch range. The tongue is deeply grooved from the mediodorsum to the root, causing an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharyngeal cavity at that point. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator. As vocal force increases, the vertical dimension of the oral and pharyngeal cavities is increased to permit the phoneme to become more sonorous. The vowel will then migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [ã].
Mandible. The mandible is in approximately the same position as it is when the phoneme [ε̃] sung is in the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered, causing the phoneme to migrate to the quality alternate vowel ]ã[.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately seven millimeters from the position of the first migration pitch range. The pharynx is increased in its vertical dimension. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The velum and its uvular appendage is arched downward into the oropharynx. The nasal port is open, permitting passage of the phonated sound into the nasal cavities.
ANALYSIS OF THE FRENCH NASAL VOWEL [œ̃]
(See pp. 336 and 337 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.High front, half-open, rounded nasal.
Labial Orifice.To produce the nasalized, rounded frontal vowel [œ̃], built on [ε], the lips are rounded and slightly protruded. The labial orifice assumes the same vertical dimension as the phoneme [œ̃] when it is sung in the stable vowel pitch range. If lip-rounding is maintained vocal force is increased to a forte, the integrity of the phoneme [œ] may be preserved, and it will not migrate. If lip-rounding is lessened, the phoneme tends to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [ε].
Tongue Position. The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The postdorsal edges of the tongue are in contact with the palatal area at the lateral tooth line. The tongue is not grooved from the tip to the mediodorsal position. It is deeply grooved from the postdorsum to the base of the tongue root, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx. The radix of the tongue is relaxed to permit the epiglottis to closely approximate the pharyngeal wall. This position of the epiglottis tends to close the opening to the vestibule and alters the characteristics of that resonator. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the predorsal-prepalatal position. As the vocal force increases, the size of the oral cavity is increased vertically by lowering the mandible, thus causing the vowel [œ̃] to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [ε]. If lip-rounding is accentuated, the integrity of the phoneme may be maintained.
Mandible. The mandible is held at a position one-half inch lower than it is for producing the vowel [ε] in the stable vowel pitch range. The vertical opening between the teeth at the center is approximately one and one-quarter inches. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is slightly lowered, thus increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. The phoneme [œ̃] may be preserved if lip-rounding is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is one-eighth inch lower than it is for production of the phoneme [œ] within the stable vowel pitch range. The thyroid cartilage is tilted forward from its passive position to increase the tension upon the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is withdrawn from the pharyngeal wall. The uvula is curved and pendulous within the oropharynx, thus permitting the phonated sound to pass into the nasal cavity.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are rounded and slightly protruded. The position of the labial orifice is identical to the position used to produce the phoneme [œ] within the stable vowel pitch range. As vocal force increases above a mezzo forte, lip-rounding must be extremely accentuated to preserve the integrity of the phoneme.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is grooved from the predorsum to the root. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately five millimeters and moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The point of greatest constriction is located at the predorsal-prepalatal position. The cavity system is tightly coupled, suggesting a singly resonant system. As vocal force is increased, the integrity of the nasal [œ̃] may be preserved if the velum is firm in its position away from the pharyngeal wall. If the lip-rounding disintegrates with the increased vocal force, the phoneme will migrate to the quality alternate vowel [ε].
Mandible. The mandibular position is the same for singing the phoneme [œ] in both the stable and first migration pitch ranges.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is lowered approximately one-quarter of an inch from the position assumed during the production of the phoneme [œ̃] within the stable vowel pitch range. This movement increases the vertical dimension of the pharynx and helps to stabilize the phonatory tube. The slight forward tilt of the thyroid cartilage increases the tension of the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is separated from the pharyngeal wall but is held firmly tense. It does not assume the relaxed arched position used in the stable vowel pitch range.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are rounded and slightly protruded. The vertical dimension of the labial orifice remains the same for the first or second migration pitch ranges. When vocal force is increased, the lip-rounding must be sustained, or the phoneme will migrate to the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tip and blade are symmetrically rounded and ungrooved. The tongue is grooved from the predorsal position to the root. The deepened groove at the root causes an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the pharynx. The radix of the tongue root moves anteriorly a distance of approximately five millimeters and moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The point of greatest constriction is located at the predorsal-prepalatal position. The cavity system tends to be tightly coupled, suggesting a singly resonated system. The lip-rounding and tongue-fronting are prime factors in determining the sound of this phoneme. Sonority is attained by the large pharyngeal and nasal space. As vocal force is increased, the integrity of the phoneme may be preserved by lip-rounding. If the labial orifice disintegrates with the increased vocal force, the phoneme will migrate to the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The position of the mandible is the same whether this phoneme [ɶ] is sung within the first or second migration pitch ranges. The major change is in the tongue position. As vocal force increases, the mandible is lowered slightly to attain greater sonority. If tongue-fronting and lip-rounding are not sustained, the phoneme will migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Velum.The velum is separated from the pharyngeal wall, but it is firm throughout its length and shortened to permit the phonated sound to pass into the nasal cavities.
ANALYSIS OF THE FRENCH NASAL VOWEL [ã]
(See pp. 338 and 339 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Stable Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Low frontal, half-open, neutral, nasal.
The lips are less tense than they are to produce the vowel [ӕ]. They are neither raised at the corners nor spread. This phoneme is pronounced as though it was built upon the vowel [ɔ] and not [ɑ], which is too open for this sound. As vocal force is increased the vertical dimension of the orifice is increased by lowering the mandible, and the vowel migrates toward [ɔ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is arched and rounded evenly from the tip to the root. It is grooved from the predorsum to the postdorsum but without a groove to the tongue root. The radix of the tongue is relaxed to permit the epiglottis to be close to the pharyngeal wall. This position of the epiglottis tends to close the opening to the vestibule and alters the characteristics of that resonator. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the postdorsal-pharyngeal wall position. As vocal force is increased, the pharyngeal cavity is enlarged and causes the vowel to migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lowered to a position permitting an opening of approximately one and one-half inches between the teeth at the center. As vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered slightly and causes an increase in the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. Care should be taken by the singer to eliminate tension in the labial orifice as the cavity dimension increases vertically. This action will eliminate the open blatancy of this phoneme and will permit the migration of this nasal vowel [ɑ̃] toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.To preserve the integrity of the nasalized [ɑ̃] the lips must maintain the same state of flexible tension required in singing the quality alternate vowel [ɔ]. Singers have a strong tendency to relax the lips and to permit them to assume the neutral, flaccid condition. This nasalized vowel can be sung mixed or more open than closed within the first migration pitch range.
The labial orifice is elongated vertically by lowering the mandible. Care must be taken not to protrude or round the lips while singing at low intensity levels in this first migration pitch area.
Lip-rounding will cause an immediate migration to the phoneme [õ]. As vocal force is increased, the labial orifice is elongated by lowering the mandible, and the phoneme migrates toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is rounded from tip to root. It is slightly grooved from postdorsum to root. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly approximately five millimeters, and moves the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis with it. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction at the postdorsum-pharyngeal wall position. As vocal force increases, tongue-backing is maintained; the pharyngeal cavity is increased in its lower dimension and thus the phoneme [ɑ̃] migrates toward the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. As the vocal force is increased, the lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is five millimeters lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged.
Velum.The velum is loosely arched downward into the oropharynx away from the pharyngeal wall, permitting the passage of the phonated sound into the nasal cavities.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.The lips are more relaxed at the corners than they are when the nasal vowel [ɑ̃] is sung within the first migration pitch range. They are flexibly tense and slightly protruded. The labial orifice is elongated vertically. This protrusion adds stability to the vocalic sound and tends to preserve the phoneme. It should not be confused with lip-rounding. In the second migration pitch range, the labial orifice assumes the shape of the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. When compared with the phoneme nasal [ɑ̃] sung within the first migration pitch range, the tongue is raised from the tip to the predorsum. The medio-dorsum and postdorsum are extremely flattened, thus increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity at the dorsal-velar position. The dorsum has a shallow groove and the root is deeply grooved. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the upper tongue root is close to the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second cervical vertebra. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. As vocal force increases, the described position of the tongue is accentuated. The phoneme sung in this position is the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the basic vowel pitch range. When vocal force increases, the lowering is accentuated.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is approximately one centimeter lower than it is when this phoneme is sung within the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage is unchanged. As vocal force is increased, the lower laryngeal position is accentuated.
Velum.The velum is withdrawn from the pharyngeal wall. It is thicker and shorter than it is for its position in the stable vowel and first migration pitch ranges. The nasal port is opened to permit the phonated sound to pass into the nasal cavities.
ANALYSIS OF THE FRENCH NASAL VOWEL [õ]
(See pp. 340 and 341 for migration drills and illustrations.)
Basic Vowel Pitch Range
Type.Mid-back, half-closed, slightly rounded, nasal.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely rounded, but the labial orifice is slightly smaller and rounder in both vertical and transverse dimensions than when singing the phoneme [ɔ]. The singer should conceive of this phoneme as a rounded closed [ɔ], not as a member of the [ɔ] phoneme. To produce the phoneme [õ], lip protrusion is to be avoided; rather, the outer edges of the lips are drawn together in a circular formation without disturbing the volumes of the oral cavity or the openness of the labial orifice. As vocal force increases, the lip-rounding must be maintained to preserve the integrity of the phoneme. However, if the intensity of the sound increases above a mezzo forte, the labial orifice tends to be more open as the singer attempts to gain greater sonority. The phoneme then migrates toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is low and flattened from the blade to the postdorsum. It is slightly grooved from the predorsum to the root. The tongue-backing is extreme. The radix of the tongue is relaxed to permit the epiglottis to be close to the pharyngeal wall. The position of the epiglottis tends to close the opening to the vestibule and alters the characteristics of that resonator. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. The point of greatest constriction is located at the postdorsum-root position and the pharyngeal wall at the level of the second and third vertebrae.
Mandible. The mandible is held at the same position as that assumed in the production of the quality alternate vowel open [ô]. The vertical opening is approximately one inch between the front teeth. As the vocal force is increased, the mandible is lowered slightly, increasing the vertical dimension of the oral cavity. This action combined with the slight relaxing of the front orifice and an increase in the anterior-posterior dimension of the back orifice causes the phoneme to migrate toward the quality alternate vowel [u].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal lowering is the same as that used to produce the low back vowels, but the tilt of the thyroid cartilage is extreme in order to stabilize and add tension to the vocal folds.
Velum.The velum is loosely arched downward into the oropharynx away from the pharyngeal wall to permit the phonated sound to pass into the nasal cavities.
First Migration Pitch Range
Labial Orifice.Lip-rounding and tension of the lips are unchanged from the position used in singing the phoneme [õ] within the stable vowel pitch range. The labial orifice must be kept round by sustaining a low mandibular position to preserve the closed characteristics of this phoneme. The closed quality of this vowel can be retained into the first migration pitch range only when the vocal force demanded ranges from mezzo forte to forte. When pianissimo and piano sounds are required, this vowel must then be damped by approaching the basic vowel closed [o] but with a relaxed velum and uvula. In such a case the mandible must be extremely lowered.
Tongue.The tongue position does not alter from that assumed in producing the nasal vowel [õ] in the stable vowel pitch range.
Mandible. The position of the mandible does not change from that assumed in singing the nasal vowel [õ] in the stable vowel pitch range.
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is the same as that assumed in producing the nasal vowel [õ] in the stable vowel pitch range.
Second Migration Pitch Range
Vocal maturation and articulatory skill are necessary to sing this phoneme properly within the second migration pitch range. While learning to sing this phoneme within the second migration pitch range, the neutral vowel [ʌ] should be sung without attempts to achieve proper lip-rounding or relaxation of the velum. The neutral vowel should be sung with the lips loose and flaccid. When the vocalic sound is stabilized with proper breath support, the lip-rounding should be accentuated by changing the labial orifice to a slightly rounded rather than an elongated position. The slight lip-rounding and the large labial orifice causes this phoneme to migrate toward the neutral vowel [ʌ]. Such a migration or substitution is vocally permissible for this nasal vowel [õ], but the singer who is seeking vocal refinement will learn to lip-round and drop the velum in the upper pitch ranges for greater intelligibility.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue conformation from tip to blade is the same as when the phoneme [õ] is produced within the first migration pitch range. The dorsum of the tongue is lowered. The tongue-backing is accentuated. The back orifice is formed at the point of greatest constriction where the postdorsum is close to the pharyngeal wall between the second and third cervical vertebra. The radix of the tongue moves anteriorly eight millimeters and moves with it the hyoid bone and the tip of the epiglottis. This movement enlarges the opening of the vestibule and increases the total dimension of that resonator, thereby altering its resonance characteristics. The oral cavity is larger than the pharyngeal cavity. As the vocal force is increased, the labial orifice becomes less tense, the tongue-backing is less accentuated, and the phoneme migrates to the quality alternate vowel [u].
Mandible. The mandible is held at a lower position than it is to produce the phoneme within the first migration pitch range. As vocal force is increased, the mandibular lowering is accentuated, increasing the anterior-posterior dimension of the labial orifice and the oral cavity at the blade-dorsal position. As the labial orifice is less rounded and more elongated, the phoneme migrates to the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Laryngeal Position.The laryngeal position is one centimeter lower than it is when the phoneme [ô] is sung within the first migration pitch range. The vertical dimension of the pharynx is increased. The tilt of the thyroid cartilage remains unchanged.
Velum.The velum is short, thick, and tense as it loosely approximates the pharyngeal wall and permits some of the phonated sound to pass into the nasal cavities. The singer may remove the velum completely from the pharyngeal wall by conscious muscular controls to attain greater nasality. The degree of nasality for this phoneme is a studio problem. In solving it the student should be guided by the teacher’s judgment.
ANALYSIS OF THE SEMIVOWELS [w], [I], AND [r]
(See p. 342 for illustrations.)
The Semivowel Glide [w]
Type.Voiced, bilabial glide.
The sound which characterizes this phoneme is the rapid movement of the lips permitting the voiced sound to change from a phoneme [u] to a following vowel. If there is no lip movement the sound remains a continuant [u]. Therefore, the acoustic effect of [w] is given only when the mechanism begins moving toward the position of the following vowel.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely rounded and protruded as in the production of the vowel [u]. For the singer the labial orifice at the start of the glide must be very small. The positioning of the orifice is always directed to the lip position of the vowel which follows.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The conformation of the tongue resembles that of the neutral vowel [ʌ] not [u].
Mandible. The mandible is held in close position during the introductory or [u] stage. It is then rapidly dropped to assume the position required of the following vowel.
Larynx. The larynx assumes the position of the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
The Semivowel [r]
The phoneme [r] may be produced as a sung sound in numerous ways. Only four varieties will be considered here: the central vowel [ɜ], the semivowel [r], the rolled or trilled [ř], and the semirolled or one tap [ɾ].
The phoneme [r] is greatly influenced by its neighboring sounds which tend to weaken rather than strengthen it. Therefore, when it is sung this phoneme must possess resonance qualities that will permit it to be musically acceptable on all pitches and aesthetically acceptable within texts. The central vowel [ɜ] is a phoneme which meets these requirements for words with r as a final consonant, such as luster, color, pillar, and also in words with the stressed sound of r, such as earth, worry, bird, nervous. (See “A Dialect for Singing,” p. 204.)
The use of this phoneme [ɜ] in these words is logical because it is sonorous, it complements the vocal line, suggests culture, and the method by which it is reproduced is simple and stable.
In singing the flipped [ɾ] is used wherever it is found between two vowels, such as merry, glory, pouring, bury; often words with r as a final consonant are preceded by [I], [ε], [U], [ɑ], [i], such as rear, fire, sure.
The semivowel glide [r] may be used in words which begin with the phoneme [r], such as run, rove, rather, and in words in which it is preceded by a consonant, crush, grieve, growl. To eliminate the common sound of the general American phoneme [ɝ], which may also be used in a similar environment, the semivowel [r] should be formed from the closed [u] position with the lips extremely rounded, the tongue slightly in retroflex and preceding through the glide to the neutral vowel position (Fig. 126). Such a lip movement provides the singer with a phoneme of greater sonority and lends it an articulatory deftness that increases its intelligibility.
The general American retroflexed [ɝ] creates some aesthethic difficulties when it is used within poetic texts, partly because it sounds clumsy in the vocal line and partly because the sound is too common for poetry of great refinement and sensitivity.
The articulatory mechanism for the production of the semivowel [r] is positioned in the following manner.
Labial Orifice.The lips are tensely rounded as they are in the production of the vowel closed [u]. The labial orifice is extremely small.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is raised and lightly touches the alveolar ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. The tongue is slightly backed and lowered at the dorsum during the first stage of forming the [u]. In the final stage the tongue assumes the position of the vowel which follows.
Mandible. The mandible is held in a close position.
Larynx. The larynx is held in the neutral vowel position without being constricted nor distorted.
Velum.The velum loosely approximates the pharyngeal wall.
The flipped [ɾ] sound is made with a single tap of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. The singer must keep the tongue in a retroflexed position while reproducing the phoneme.
The rolled or trilled [ř] is produced by firmly pressing the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge while it is in retroflex and permitting the voiced breath stream to rapidly vibrate the tip and blade. It is important that the mandible be held very firm during the trill.
ANALYSIS OF THE STOP PLOSIVES [b], [p], [d],
[t], [g], AND [k]
(See pp. 343 and 344 for illustrations.)
The Consonants [b] and [p]
Type.Voiced and unvoiced, bilabial, stop plosives.
The plosive sound which identifies this consonant is caused by the sudden release of impounded air effected by lowering the mandible and a simultaneous protrusion and relaxing of the lips, or by dropping the velum to allow the air to be emitted through the nasal cavities as in the word cabman.
The articulatory mechanism is positioned in the following manner.
Labial Orifice.The lips are firmly closed and tensed against the oral air pressure. In singing this act must be exaggerated beyond the neutral position of lax utterance in speech.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue is flattened and backed in a manner comparable to the position of the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is held in a half-closed position and it is suddenly lowered as the lips part to release the impounded pressure through the mouth. In singing the amount of depression of the mandible and eversion of the lips varies and depends largely upon the environment of the phoneme within the context. When the velum is raised and the nasal emission of the air is used the mandible is held firmly tense during the implosion period.
Larynx. In forming the voiced consonant [b] the larynx is drawn forward and upward causing a distortion of the trachea and a constriction of the vestibular entrance. The lower pharyngeal area is greatly enlarged.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall except when it is dropped to permit the passage of air into the nasal cavities.
The Consonants [d] and [t]
Type.Voiced and voiceless, lingua-alveolar, stop plosives.
The plosive sound which identifies the consonant [d] is caused by the sudden release of impounded air through the mouth effected by the lowering of the mandible and a simultaneous lowering of the tongue, or by dropping the velum to allow the air to be emitted through the nasal cavities as in the word sadden [sӕdn̩].
Labial Orifice.The lips are slightly parted and protruded. The more the lips are everted in the production of this vowel the greater the intelligibility of the consonant [d].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is elevated and broadened to make firm contact with the alveolar ridge immediately posterior to the upper front teeth. The entire tongue is raised to a point of contact with the teeth forming a firm seal against the rising air pressure. The sudden removal of the tip of the tongue from the alveolar ridge causes the escape of the dammed up air stream.
In such words as saddle [sӕdl̩] the air is emitted laterally by keeping the tip of the tongue firmly pressed against the alveolar ridge and relaxing the lateral borders of the tongue. In such words as sadden [sӕdn̩] the velum is lowered and permits the sound to be emitted through the nasal cavities.
The dental [d] used in Spanish, French, and Italian is formed by placing the upper surface of the tongue tip against the upper teeth instead of the alveolar ridge.
The Mandible. The mandible is held firmly at the half-closed position. It is lowered as the tongue is lowered and releases the impounded air.
Larynx. The larynx is drawn forward and upward during the production of the voiced [d], and it causes a distortion of the trachea and a constriction of the vestibule. The lower pharyngeal cavity is greatly enlarged.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall except when it is lowered to permit the passage of air into the nasal cavities.
The Consonants [gl and [k]
Type.Voiced and unvoiced, lingua-velar, stop plosives.
The plosive sound which identifies this voiced consonant [g] is caused by the sudden release of the impounded air pressure through the mouth effected by the dropping of the postdorsum of the tongue and closing the nasal port.
Labial Orifice.The lips are slightly parted and protruded. The degree of opening may vary with phonemic environment.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The postdorsum of the tongue is elevated to form an airtight contact with the velum and the posterior hard palate. The sides and back of the tongue are in contact with the molar teeth. This velar-postdorsal position is used only when the [g] is followed by a low central or back vowel as in going or good. When [g] is followed by a frontal vowel as in geese or gear the point of occlusion is at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal position. However for the purposes of singing, the symbol [g] will be used to represent all of the sounds in the series. The explosion of the impounded air may occur laterally by releasing the tension on the sides of the tongue as in the word wiggle [wIgl] or through the nasal cavities by lowering the velum as in the word signal [sIgnl].
The points of occlusion for the voiceless [k] follow the same rules of phonemic environment as does the voiced [g]. In such words as car, cough, cold, where [k] is followed by a low central or back vowel the point of occlusion is at the postdorsal and velar positions. Where [k] is followed by a frontal vowel in words such as key, kin, the occlusion is at the mediodorsal-mediopalatal position.
Mandible. The mandible is held firmly at the half-open position.
Larynx. In producing the voiced consonant [g] the larynx is drawn forward and upward causing a distortion of the trachea and an extreme constriction of the vestibule. The lower pharynx is enlarged at the entrance to the esophagus.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall and it is only dropped to permit the passage of the impounded air through the nasal cavities during the production of words demanding a nasal explosion, such as signal.
ANALYSIS OF THE CONTINUANT FRICATIVES [f], [v], [s],
[z], [ʃ], AND [ӡ]
(See p. 345 for illustrations.)
The Consonants [f] and [v]
Type.Voiced and unvoiced, labiodental, fricative, continuants.
The friction sound which identifies these consonants is caused by the articulatory mechanism.
Labial Orifice.The lower lip is raised to make a loose contact with the lower incisors.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the lower front teeth. The dorsum is ungrooved, low, and slightly backed.
Mandible. The mandible is raised to closed position.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is drawn forward and upward only in the production of the voiced phoneme causing a distortion of the trachea and a constriction of the vestibular entrance.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
The Consonants [z] and [s]
Type.Voiced and unvoiced, lingua-alveolar, fricative continuant.
The frictibn sound which identifies this consonant is created by the passage of a small jet of air through an opening formed along the median raphe of the tongue. The jet of air passes over the cutting edge of the lower incisors producing the high frequency buzz that, with the laryngeal sound is characteristic of this phoneme [z].
Labial Orifice.The lips are slightly spread and the corners are raised. The bilabial orifice must be open in the shape of an elongated oval. The degree of opening varies with the individual.
Tongue.The tongue is flattened and elevated so that its lateral borders are in contact with the upper teeth and the alveolar ridge. The dorsum of the tongue is grooved. The tip of the tongue is firmly pressed against the alveolar ridge; it is shallowly grooved, to permit the air to be directed downward, directly over the lower incisors creating the friction sound.
The tongue position varies considerably from one individual to another. The formation of the teeth being the most variable factor affecting the production of the consonant [z]. In a common variable position the tongue is placed against the inner borders of the lower teeth, causing the blade to be rolled against the alveolar ridge; although the tongue is grooved, the air jet produces less buzz.
Mandible. The mandible is held in a nearly closed position, but the movement may be varied without a noticeable change in the sound of this phoneme.
Laryngeal Position.The vocal folds are approximated and the larynx is drawn forward and upward during the production of the voiced phoneme causing a distortion of the trachea and a constriction of the vestibular entrance. An enlargement of the lower pharynx and piriform sinus extends to the entrance of the esophagus.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
The Consonants [ʃ] and [Ӡ]
Type.Voiced and unvoiced, linguapalatal, fricative, continuants.
The friction sound which identifies this consonant is produced by the passage of air through a wide but shallow orifice between the top of the tongue and the palate. The voiced air stream passes through this orifice out between the lips and teeth. The articulatory mechanism is positioned in the following manner.
Labial Orifice.The labial orifice is oval shaped and slightly protruded. The lips are more rounded than they are to produce the phoneme [z]. This rounding creates a small cavity between the lips and the teeth which adds a characteristic resonance to the phoneme.
Tongue Position. The tip of the tongue is flattened, raised, and drawn forward contacting the hard palate just posterior to the alveolar ridge. The lateral borders of the tongue are in contact with the inner borders of the teeth forming a wide but shallow orifice between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate.
This linguapalatal orifice is wider and formed farther back on the palate than it is for the phoneme [z], and the labial orifice is also more rounded and protruded.
Mandible. The mandible remains at the half-closed position.
Laryngeal Positions. The vocal folds are approximated. The larynx is drawn forward and upward only in the production of the voiced phoneme causing a distortion of the trachea and a constriction of the vestibular entrance. The lower pharyngeal area is enlarged.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE CONTINUANT FRICATIVES [θ], [ɚ],[x],
[J], [j],AND [ҫ]
(See pp. 346 and 347 for illustrations.)
The Consonants [θ] and [ɚ]
Type.Voiced and unvoiced, linguadental, fricatives, continuants.
The sounds of these two phonemes do not appear in German, French, and Italian. Foreigners trying to learn the English language find these sounds very difficult to learn. A usual substitution is the dental [t] or [d] or in some cases the sibilant [s].
The friction sound which identifies these consonants results from the passage of the voiced air stream through an orifice formed by the grooved tip of the tongue and the edges of the upper front teeth.
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread and slightly raised at the corners.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is in light contact with the upper incisors and slightly protruded so that the inferior surface rests upon the lower teeth. The tongue is silghtly grooved from blade to dorsum. The dorsum is raised and lies in contact with the inner borders of the upper teeth and with the alveolar ridge leaving a wide central cavity for the passage of the air stream.
Mandible. The mandible is raised to a half-closed position.
Laryngeal Position.The vocal folds are approximated. The larynx is drawn forward and upward only in the production of the voiced phoneme causing a distortion of the trachea and a constriction of the vestibular entrance. The lower pharyngeal area is enlarged to the esophageal entrance.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
The Consonant [x] (German Bach)
Type.Voiceless, lingua, posteriorpalatal, fricative, continuant.
This consonant is used only when it is preceded by low frontal, low central, and back vowels.
The friction sound which identifies this consonant results from the passage of air through a narrow channel at the postdorsum-velar position which is partially blocked by the uvula. The articulatory mechanism is positioned in the following manner.
Labial Orifice.The lips are relaxed and the labial orifice is open as in the production of the phoneme [ɑ].
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The blade and predorsum are flattened. The postdorsum is backed and raised at the velar position.
Mandible. The mandible is lowered to the position assumed in the production of the vowel [ɑ].
Larynx. The larynx is held in the same position as it is to produce the vowel [ɑ].
Velum.The velum is relaxed to permit the uvula to be in contact with the tongue at the postdorsal position. The uvula is doubled up, lying upon the postdorsum of the tongue with its tip pointing anteriorly. The position is probably caused by the breath pressure behind the velar closure.
The Continuant Fricatives [J], [j] and [ҫ]
Type.Voiced and voiceless, lingua anteriorpalatal, fricative, continuants.
The articulatory positions of these three phonemes are identical in the sung sound.
The friction sound which identifies these consonants, [J], [j], and [ҫ], results from the passage of air through a very narrow slit along the median raphe of the tongue as the dorsum is held firmly against the roof of the mouth at the palatal position. The voiced phoneme [J] is used in pronouncing the French word fille. The voiced phoneme [j] is used in pronouncing the English word yes. The unvoiced phoneme [ҫ] is used in pronouncing the German word ich.
Labial Orifice.The lips are spread and raised slightly at the corners. The labial orifice is narrow and oval shaped.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The lateral edges of the blade and predorsum are firmly pressed against the upper back teeth and roof of the mouth at the prepalatal position. The tongue has a shallow groove along the median raphe.
Laryngeal Position.The larynx is stable as in the production of the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Mandible. The mandible is held in closed position.
Velum.The velum is firmly pressed against the pharyngeal wall.
ANALYSIS OF THE NASAL CONSONANTS
[m], [n], AND [ŋ]
(See p. 348 for illustrations.)
The Nasal [m]
Type.Voiced, bilabial stop, nasal continuant.
The nasal sound which identifies this phoneme is caused by permitting the voiced sound to pass into the nasal cavities by closing the labial orifice and lowering the velum.
Labial Orifice.The lips are firmly pressed together closing the labial orifice.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the bottom front teeth. The tongue conformation is exactly the same as that for the neutral vowel [ʌ] in all modification positions.
Mandible. The position is the same as that used to produce the neutral vowel [ʌ] in all migration positions.
Velum.The velum is relaxed and withdrawn from the pharyngeal wall.
The Nasal [ŋ]
Type.Voiced, lingua-alveolar stop, nasal continuant.
The nasal sound which identifies this phoneme is caused by permitting the voiced sound to pass into the nasal cavities by pressing the blade of the tongue firmly against the alveolar ridge and lowering the velum.
Labial Orifice.The lips are relaxed and slightly everted.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is held firmly against the alveolar ridge. The dorsum and edges of the tongue are raised so as to touch the teeth and palate. The postdorsum and root are deeply grooved to form a large pharyngeal cavity.
Mandible. The mandible is held at the half-open position.
Larynx. The larynx is stable and a phonated sound is produced as in the neutral vowel [ʌ].
Velum.The velum is relaxed and removed from the pharyngeal wall.
The Nasal [ŋ]
Type.Voiced, linguavelar stop, nasal continuant.
The nasal sound which identifies this phoneme is caused by permitting the voiced sound to pass into the nasal cavities by pressing the velum against the dorsum of the tongue. The articulatory mechanism is positioned in the following manner.
Labial Orifice.The lips are neutral and relaxed. The labial orifice is oval shaped.
Tongue.The tip of the tongue is pressed firmly against the bottom front teeth. The dorsum of the tongue is raised so as to form a firm contact with the velum at the postdorsal position. The tongue root is backed close to the pharyngeal wall creating a large lower pharynx.
Mandible. The mandible is held at the half-open position.
Larynx. The larynx is held stable. A phonated sound is produced as in the phoneme [ʌ].
Velum.The velum is lowered to contact the postdorsum of the tongue.
___________________
* The palatograms for [j] and [ҫ] are the same as for [J].
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