“PART III” in “Tibetan Buddhist Chant”
PART III
Stylistic Analysis
Deities, names of songs, authors; rhythmical structures of the S songs:
The majority of the songs contained in the yang-yig represent hymn types if the term hymn is applied in its wider meaning to define, for instance, similarly chanted melodies such as those of the earliest Christian church. With a few exceptions the authors (real or alleged) of the songs are K Lamas who lived between the twelfth and nine-teenth centuries. The texts are lines of praise, invocation, invitation of deities, and a few mantras.
Below follows a list of the seventy-nine songs stating for each song, as far as this is possible, the deity to which it appeals, the name of the song and the author whenever his name is mentioned in the yang-yig. Details concerning the various authors-who they were, when they lived-were given in Part II in the annotations heading the songs.
As already mentioned, the tantric nature of the yang-yig becomes manifest particularly in the yab-yum concept. Half of all the songs are directed toward Mahākāla (Mgon-Po) and his spouse Ma-Mo (Lha-Mo). The others appeal to deities such as the Protectors of Religion, Demons and Devils, and the various Buddhas.
Almost all songs of the yang-yig have a more or less strophic character. The strophes are not as clearly defined as those of similar songs of the western world. Textually, if only the main tshig are considered, distinct stanzas can be observed in most of the songs, and the number of syllables of each line of a song tallies with that of subsequent lines. Musically, matters are less clear because the tshiglhad require additional notes and thus obscure the regularity of stanza and strophe. As shown in the analyses of Part II, the notational curves and complexes of the strophes tally to a greater degree than their chanted interpretations.
As in the eleventh century hymn of the West, the range of sacred Tibetan melodies, particularly in the K interpretations, is narrow, and little or no relationship exists between notes appearing on strong or weak syllables. The K transcriptions show that there is no constant strict metrical structure of the chanted melodies except in a few instances when a regular pulse can be observed caused by textual features. Generally, however, rhythm and meter are more or less disregarded.
The S versions of the songs have more distinct metrical and rhythmical structures than the K chants. In order to illustrate this feature, the S interpretations of songs 2-6 are shown below without being coordinated to the notational curves and the K version. It will be observed that the common meter prevails despite a few measures with two or three metrical units.
When hearing these melodies chanted one can have the impression of perceiving chromatic and microtonal features. I take here the liberty of restating this matter and quoting some lines from my book “TheMusicalNotationsoftheOrient:
“Recordings of some Tibetan melodies convey the impression that semitones and, occasionally, microtonal intervals are in use. While we have to agree that the sounds produced do show complex intervallic steps, we must point out that the basic tone-material of the melodies is predominantly anhemitonic pentatonic. This writer, who had numerous opportunities to listen to these chants performed in Ladakh and in eastern Tibet, came to the following conclusion: the liturgical melodies have to be chanted by the monks in as low a range as possible, and the massed bass voices produce a sound that indeed becomes tremendously impressive and unforgettable to the western listener. However, only a few of the choir usually are able to sing the very low notes correctly. The majority of the choir, who cannot perform these low notes, incline to intone them a little higher; the difference between the intended note and that actually produced by the “baritone” voices being a semitone, or even a whole tone. Often the majority of voices are somewhat out of tune, hence unusual intervals result. For instance, if the melody is to be F G A C C A G, we hear the majority of monks chanting F# G# A C C A G# , or similar alterations generally affecting the lowest notes. Occasionally singers having intoned the lowest notes somewhat higher remain in that higher “key” until the rest of the voices either join them in the higher key or until some powerful voices pull them back into the original key. . . ” [Pp. 359–60]
I should add here that while elsewhere, for instance in China or India, recordings for commercial purposes are made mostly by professional singers or musicians, in Tibet the few recorded pieces are chanted and played by monks or nuns, frequently musically untrained people who have learned the melodies when they were members of large ensembles in monasteries. We in the West probably would produce similar chromatic and microtonal intonations if we selected at random a group of musically untrained persons and asked them to sing as a group into a microphone. The resulting sounds created would produce similarly puzzling phenomena.
Stylistic features
While the steady and regular pulse used in the chanting of the sacred syllables Bhyo, Hum, Om, and Hri or Hsi (the musical settings of these syllables will be examined below) represents syllabic style, one note against one syllable, the greater part of the K interpretations has neumatic character. The S interpretations vary between neumatic and melismatic types and generally avoid the syllabic form.
The melodic motion of the K versions ranges within the narrow ambitus of three notes (to be discussed below) and reminds us of the Rigvedic chant, where similar phenomena can be observed. The K melodies usually move from a central recitation tone up or down by one degree. Three notes, e. g. , G A Bb (or F G Ab) of which A (or G) is the central tone, can be observed most frequently. It is important to repeat that the Lama who chanted the K versions for me was very old and had been ailing for a long time; hence precise intonations of the required intervals cannot be expected. Despite these shortcomings the outlines of the melodies are remarkably clear even if the upper note of the three note group is frequently flat. Thus instead of a probable G A B one may hear G A Bb, and occasionally even G# A Bb, when the lowest note is intoned somewhat high. In the chanting of the Rigveda we find that the central note, the udātta (“raised”) is the note of recitation, the “tenor.” Below it, generally a major second distant, is the anudātta (“not raised”), somewhat contrary to the information given by Pāṇini, the Father of Sanskrit Grammarians of the fourth century B. C. ; and as it was postulated in subsequent periods, the svarita (“resounding”), is a note eventually placed above the udātta, either a major or minor second distant.
The S II versions generally tending toward the three-note systems differ from the K versions by usually maintaining the interval of a major second between the central and lower, and between central and upper tones. Thus a pattern of G A B prevails which can be assumed to be a part of the anhemitonic pentatonic scale (G A B D E or D E G A B). The reason for this assumption is that a number of S II songs show indeed tone materials that utilize more than three notes and the additional notes invariably are degrees of the pentatonic scale.
The S I versions show wider ranges than those of the K and S II and usually employ the anhemitonic pentatonic material. It is of interest that even the comparatively austere K songs occasionally show traces of the basic five-tone character. This can be observed when processional (outdoor) melodies are attached to the songs. The mere fact that these attached or interpolated sections have a more or less secular and popular character causes a noticeable stylistic change. In such instances the attached melody becomes clearly defined metrically and no “tonusfatigatus” is in evidence. The material is clear F G A and the meter is a strict 4/4. The feeling that F G A (C D) represents the pentatonic scale becomes remarkably distinct.
The K songs can be described as liturgical recitatives. Despite the tshiglhad, which obscure the sacred main syllables, the K interpretations are simple musical representations of the tshig where some degree of textual clarity is achieved. In these K versions the recitation varies from “rectotono” (the unchanged pitch) to a few melodic punctuations of the already mentioned three-note patterns. There are simple upward, simple downward, combinations of down and up, and up and down motions, and full stop features. Although no “punctusinterrogatus”occurs, a few “positurae” show slight rising tendencies at the ends of strophes. The K recitations assume their musical shapes generally by textual requirements.
Although spoken Tibetan employs three tones (high, medium, and low), they are hardly noticeable when one listens to the conversation of two or more well-educated Tibetans. However, the spoken language does show some accents which are not related to the linguistic tonal inflections. These accents occasionally become distinct in the recitations of prayers and poetry, material that is found in the yang-yig. In the K interpretations very few musical elaborations appear that lessen the dignified simplicity of the textual and melodic lines. Among the few elaborations can be noted various ornaments and, as already mentioned, occasional interpolations (textual and melodic) that are not notated in the manuscript.
The S I interpretations can be considered free compositions, more or less elaborate forms of the recitatives. While in the K versions the text rules, in the S I versions the melody assumes greater importance. The S II versions can be placed between the extremes of the K and S I interpretations. However, there are no distinct delineations between recitative and free composition in Tibetan chant. Many of the songs represent combinations of both styles.
Considering all aspects of tone material in Tibetan liturgical instrumental and vocal music, two basic styles which can be described as “Indian” and “Central Asian” can be observed. The former is represented by the instrumental preludes and interludes, by dance music, and, to a certain degree, by the bulk of the K versions. I should mention once more that the most important religious features of Tibet had their origins in India; the Buddhist doctrine itself, the great teachers and reformers, and, last but not least, the (Rigvedic) three-tone character of some of the sacred melodies. All “Indian” features had a mark of distinction in Tibet and were highly revered.
The other style, the “Central Asian,” based upon the anhemitonic pentatonic tone material, can be observed in most of the S songs and, of course, in Tibetan folk melodies.
The tables show not only the scales but indicate the ambitus, cadential features, and formulae that occur frequently. The abbreviations i and F stand for the opening (often the recitation tone) note and the final note, respectively. The “incomplete cadence” represents the last note (or notes) of a strophe; the “full cadence” represents the concluding note (or notes) of a song. The term cadence has been used here in its widest meaning, not necessarily representing the basic concept of “falling” back into a tonic.
Half a dozen songs have been examined in order to obtain information concerning the average numbers of intervallic steps. Song 1 was not used because the S interpretations are not complete. Song 3 was not used because a shift in tonality can be observed at IV A 1/1 which would distort the intervals.
In the following list a distinction has been made between minor and major seconds because the former will indicate the “Indian” style.
The foregoing table shows that the apparently amodal K melodies use a large number of semitonic steps. Thirds, fourths, and larger intervals do not appear in the six songs and are very rare in subsequent songs. The modal S I melodies exclude semitonic intervals and employ major seconds, thirds, a few fourths, and in one instance (song 8) an ascending sixth. The prevailingly modal S II melodies also exclude the semitonic steps and show phenomena similar to those of the S I songs, but use a smaller number of fourths and no sixths.
The question of whether the melodies have a prevailing ascending or descending nature is answered by the almost even balance between ascending and descending features.
The use of ornaments can be observed in all three versions. The frequency of ornaments in the six songs of the foregoing table is shown below:
The use of ornaments is well balanced between the three versions. In the K songs under consideration there are nine ornaments; S I has ten, and S II has thirteen. In the K versions I have included as an ornament the characteristic steep downward glide. In general it can be said that ornaments can be observed in the same or similar proportions in the rest of the songs.
In contrast to the Gregorian chant, where text and melody appear in close relationship, the text-melody connection in Tibetan chant is vague. This is caused by the tendency to obscure the main tshig by the use of interpolated and linking tshigIhad. It has been shown in Part II that the tshiglhad may vary in type and number from one sect to the other and from one performance to the next; hence no fixed rules concerning text-melody relationships can be established. The only way to investigate this relationship is by reading carefully the text and selecting the main tshig.
At the beginning of some songs the obscuring nature of the tshiglhad is not effective, and certain methods of setting the sacred syllables to music can be observed. These sacred syllables are hum, bhyo, om. hsi, and the exclamation kye. There are several other syllables of similar character, such as dza, but usually they do not appear at the beginning of a song.
While there is a considerable freedom in the S interpretations, where numerous melodic and textual liberties hinder the investigation, the authentic K interpretation lends itself well to the planned scrutiny. There are basically four modes of setting the sacred syllables to music: (a) repeated notes of equal durations, all of the same pitch; (b) notes of equal durations with varying pitches; (c) notes of irregular durations with the same pitch; (d) notes of irregular durations and varying pitches.
The first mode is the most popular one. When a group of monks chants in the deep bass register on the same note, in the same rock steady meter, syllables such as HUMngaiwayai create an impression of infinite strength, greatness, and dignity that strongly appeal to all-performers and listeners. When pitch and meter are altered, this effect is weakened.
The following list of opening tshig shows that mode (a) prevails by far. In order to facilitate the reading of the list I have added to each tshig not only the song number, but the curve (or complex) number that refers to the descriptions of curves and complexes presented below.
The songs listed under the headings Mode (a) and Mode (c) have a strong, powerful character, while those listed under Modes (b) and (d) can be considered to be of a more gentle and lyrical nature. In the strong and powerful songs the sacred opening syllables and some of the subsequent tshig are notated mostly by curve #4, or by curve #2b; notes that are on the same pitch but of irregular duration are notated by curves #1, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10. In the gentle songs the sacred opening syllables are notated by curves #4 if equal durations of the notes are intended, and by #2a, 5, and 8 if irregular durations are in evidence. (Detailed descriptions of notational curves are shown below.)
Word Painting
Another text-melody relationship is word painting. The time probably was ripe for this later so popular technique if we consider the Italian caccias of the late fourteenth century. The question could be asked whether there appeared, at least sporadically, similar phenomena in the Tibetan chant. No definite answer can be given, and yet, with a little imagination, we may find some instances that hint at word painting. A few examples may suffice.
Song 2: In it appear the syllables bskalpa (implying a fabulous, fantastical period of the Buddhists, e. g. , the “conflagration of the universe”), me (“fire”), ḥbar (“blaze”), and durkhrodnas ([visible] “from the cemetery”). In all three interpretations (III A 1/2) the wavering, flickering of ḥbar can be imagined, not only by the wavy shape of the notational curve but by its interpretation.
Song 5: After the “rock steady” solid bhyo presentation of IV B 2/1, the melody assumes a florid character with çar (byangçar, “northeast”), most noticeably in S I (IV B 2/4 ff.). The directions of the compass are often mentioned in reference to deities. The words byang-çar must not be taken literally, but have to be associated with religious, supernatural sentiments. The words relating the appearance of a deity are often chanted in a florid manner that indicates the other worldly character of the event. Also, the syllables phobrangnas of V A 1/2-2/2 (“from the divine palace”) are interpreted with a florid melodic movement (at V A 1/3-1/7) and, after nas, at 2/1-2/2, most noticeably in the S I version. Similar florid features can be observed in the S I version at V A 2/3-2/6 when the text mentions the bstan. . . srung (“guardian of the doctrine”), and at V B 1/3-1/6, when skusprul (the “emanation body”) is mentioned.
Song 7: The words humdadpadangni are chanted in the same steady manner as the opening hum (or bhyo) in the K interpretation, but assume a florid shape in the S I and S II versions. Of interest are the syllables tshurgçegs (“come hither”), which are rendered in an equally florid manner in the S I interpretation. The passage appears to depict the inviting, bowing, and persuading gestures of the devotees. The K and S II interpretations, however, do not show any word painting when these two syllables (tshurgçegs) are chanted.
Song 8: The first syllable om is interpreted with a rising melodic line in all three versions. In the S I version the syllable çog (“come”) at VII A 1/2 is again represented by a florid line. Another florid treatment is given to the sacred syllable dza of VII A 2/6.
Song 19: At XII B 2/12 the word chen (“big”) is interpreted in the K version with a rise of the melody to Bb. In the two S interpretations no ascending feature can be observed. At XIII A 1/4 the syllable ri (“mountain”) has a rising tendency in the K version, and, although slightly anticipated in the S I and S II interpretations, similar features can be found.
Song 21: With a little fantasy the listener can imagine the waves of blood (raktakhraggirgyaḩgrilbala ) at XIII B 2/2-2/10 swirling in the alternatives of F G F G throughout the S II version.
Song 42: At XXI B 2/5-2/6 klong (“valley”) and the subsequent tshiglhad (XXI 2/8, 2/10, 2/12) appear to convey the twisting movement of the “black wind.” This, however, is more manifest in the notational line than in the actual performance of the song.
I could continue this search for word painting, but the entire matter is so vague that little can be gained from the foregoing observations.
A search for characteristic musical features indicating accented textual syllables produces no distinct results. There are no specific musical types of accents that frequently coincide with accented syllables. Despite the negative results of this search it may be of interest to examine the matter briefly in order to show its vague character.
First of all it is necessary to recognize the accented syllables among the main tshig. This can be achieved by having all main tshig read aloud by an educated Tibetan who is acquainted with the sacred texts. The reading will show that almost all main tshig can be grouped into two patterns of alternating accented with not-accented syllables. I am taking the liberty of repeating here what has been stated before: the tshig of song 4, representing the first pattern, are:
In the chanted performance, when the accented tshig are linked with the tshiglhad and the not accented syllables, the search for accented main tshig becomes difficult. The musical settings of these accented tshig can be grouped into sustaining, a few melismatic, and some tonic accents, by employing a terminology borrowed from the Gregorian chant.
An examination of the first half dozen (complete) songs (2-7) shows the following results:
The foregoing brief survey would be of some significance if the not-accented syllables were free of similar musical accents. But they are not. Even a cursory examination shows that all three types (sustaining, melismatic, and tonic) appear not only with accented but with not-accented syllables as well.
Probably the most remarkable melismatic accent is the four- (or three-, or two-) note ornament (). In the K versions this ornament can represent musical accents that appear with, or immediately before or after, the textual accent. The same feature, however, also appears with not-accented syllables and therefore does not represent a characteristic sign of a musical accent. For instance, song 15, at XI B 1/3 shows the ornament before sku and song 16, at XI B 2/4 shows the ornament after bdag.
As far as I know, there exist no written tractates or other works in Tibetan that explain in detail the notational symbols and their interpretation. There are two prevailing styles of writing notational curves, one with large and round features, the other with small and gently curved outlines. These are merely matters of writing style and have no influence on the interpretation of the curves.
In the K and S sects instruction concerning the writing and interpreting of the notational curves were handed down from master to pupil as part of secret initiations and were not made accessible in written form. In order to find a way toward comprehending the symbols I began my investigation by comparing the notational material with the recorded songs. After I had obtained the yang-yig, it was necessary for me to hear a tape recording of the songs and to make certain that the recorded interpretations were fully reliable. There is no doubt that the Lama Senge Norbu, who had copied the yang-yig for me and eventually chanted the songs, was utterly trustworthy. For more than half of his life he had been an Um-dze-pa at an important monastery which alone would be a guarantee of his authoritative reading of the notated songs. Further- more, he was deeply interested in doing the best work in his recording of the songs because he knew that my collaborator, Professor Norbu, was an important figure in Tibetan religious life and the brother of His Holiness The Dalai Lama. As a matter of fact Lama Senge Norbu was hoping to achieve through his writing and recording an indirect contact with the Dalai Lama in the hope of later finding a new position in India. Something would have been done to help him, but fate intervened and he passed away. I beg the reader’s pardon for mentioning these matters, but they do certify to the authoritative nature of the interpretations. However, the Lama was very old and suffered from failing health when he recorded the songs for me. It is probable that many of the intervals he sang were not those that were originally intended. A semitone chanted by the Lama may have implied a larger interval, and an ornament may have been chanted in an abbreviated manner. Nevertheless the contours of the melodies, their basic ascending and descending features, are doubtlessly correct because neither old age nor the illness of the singer would change them. Also, durational and rhythmical features may be expected to have remained unchanged.
As the names of the notational curves change from one monastery to the other, and as these names are unreliable, I found it advisable to provide the curves with numbers (#1, #2, etc.) and thus avoid misunderstandings. The investigations made by the eminent Tibetologist Renée von Nebesky-Wojkowitz and W. Graf (Studiamusicologica III, 1-4, 1962, pp. 133-47) are of interest. Here some names are used, but without seeing the entire Tibetan manuscript one would expect to read the “Elemente und Namen”; (p. 145) not as names of the curves, but as annotations dealing with performance practice and stating a few textual features: curves (d) and (e) are annotated with “oberhalb” and “Mutter.” However, as textual features the syllables bla-ma mean, of course, “Lama.” Similar possible misunderstandings can arise from the other “names” of the curves. Dka, ḥgyurshib (žib), brgyud, and dang (the last word means in Tibetan “and”) probably do not denote specific curves and may have been used as reminders for the Um-dze-pa or could be part of textual features.
It is perplexing that the notation of Tibetan chant employs not one but half a dozen differently shaped symbols that are interpreted in the same manner. This abundance of notational symbols, all meaning practically the same, is irrational and makes me suspect that there are, or were, certain differences in interpretation that are not apparent any more. It can be assumed that these symbols may have denoted different musical features in the past and that in the course of centuries the exact interpretations have become obscure. Or, it is possible that these curves are variants or constituent parts of other curves. Curve #la, for instance, could be another form of curve #1, or it could be a combination of curves #1 and #2; curve #5 could be a combination of # la (or #2) with #2, and so forth.
As I have derived the interpretations of the various symbols from the recorded songs it is possible that in reality there are fewer curves than I listed when I took into consideration all noticeable variants of the written symbols. The Tibetans I have consulted for over thirty years both in Tibet and later in America insisted that each curve represents a particular musical feature, although no two opinions concerning the interpretations of the symbols were the same.
I first consider the K interpretations of the symbols and afterwards turn to the S interpretations.
THE K INTERPRETATIONS OF THE NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS
This is one of the simple notational symbols. It is a moderately concave curve, usually written in a slightly oblique manner whereby the left end of the curve is placed a little higher than the right one. Another form of #1 is an inverted flat S-shaped curve, generally written in the same oblique manner as the first form. Both curves represent the same: usually one single long note of the basic pitch (recitation note).
The descending character of the obliquely written curves is not reflected in the interpretations. Only if the curve is followed by a çad is it performed with a slight terminal descending glide, a feature that is caused by the punctuation mark and not by the placing of the curve:
Curve #1 can also be interpreted by two notes, each of equal duration or with the first note twice as long as the second:
(a) Single-note interpretations, without çad, may be found, for instance, in:
song 6, VI A 1/11.
song 28, XVI B 2/11, 2/14. Curve #1 of 2/11 is chanted on A, but the same curve is sung on Bb at 2/14. The change of pitch is caused by 2/13 which consists of two ascending features. One could imagine that 2/14 would represent a return to the recitation note (A) as indicated by the downward glide that starts 2/14, but the Lama remained on Bb only to return to A at 2/15. Single note interpretations of curve #1 without çad occur also in song 31, XVIII A 1/13. (XVIII A 1/12 is an exception and will be considered below):
Of interest are the curves (#1) XXVI A 1/16 and 1/17; the former represents a single note a third lower in pitch than the latter. This shows that curve #1 does not always represent only the recitation note.
(b) Single-note interpretations, followed by the çad, may be found in: song 22, XIV A 1/10, 2/12; song 27, XVI A 2/14; song 44, XXII B 2/12; song 46, XXIII A 2/14; song 48 (21), XXV A 3 /16 (although no çad is notated, the clicks are performed); song 57, XXX B 2/10, 2/13, 2/19; and song 76, B XXXVII 1/8.
(c) Two-note interpretations (both notes of the same pitch) without following çad, are found in: song 15, XI A 2/9; song 26, XV B 2/15; Song 46, XXIII A 2/12;
(d) Two-note interpretations (both notes of the same pitch) with follow- çad, may be found in song 48 (19), XXV A 3/16.
A few deviations from the above mentioned interpretations can be observed in:
Sequences of convex and concave curves such as (song 69, XXXIV B 1/10-1/11) which represent two notes in succession are often linked by a three-note ornament:
This symbol has the same meaning as the second curve of #1. As #1A, it is usually written in a horizontal manner, or it is tilted slightly to the left. As already mentioned, this curve is interpreted as a single note, particularly if followed by a çad, and as two notes usually if it is not followed by a çad.
In most instances curve 1A becomes the first constituent part of curve complexes such as .
If it is part of a curve complex the curve 1A is generally interpreted as one single note which will be followed by other notes that are determined by the rest of the complex. In this form it can be observed in various combinations, for instance in:
Further and similar instances can be observed in:
In a few instances curve #1A is interpreted as a rising feature as in:
In a few instances curve #1A receives an elaborate interpretatio, as in:
This single small convex curve represents one, occasionally two notes, generally of the same pitch and performed in succession. The single note, or the second of the two notes, has a vague concluding character if the curve is not linked to other curves. In some instances the symbol is annotated with bead or ḥcad (“cut”), which need not mean a cadential feature but rather a brief interruption of the melodic line, a breathing rest.
The concluding character of curve #2 becomes manifest when, as it happens in the majority of instances, the symbol is followed by a çad. Then the note ends with a short descending glide. This can be observed in the two-note interpretations such as: song 18, XII A 2/13; song 18, B XII 1/4; song 27, B XVI 1/7;
The same phenomenon can be observed, but less frequently, in one-note interpretations, for instance, in song 33, XVIII A 2/2.
Other interpretations, without the concluding descending glide, but with following çad, are: song 19, XII B 2/1; song 28, XVII A 1/9; song 33, XVIII A 2/5 (this is followed by a çad but no clicks are performed).
If two #2 curves are linked we observe a linking device that appears frequently between various curves and complexes. An example of linking #2 with #2 is found in song 52, XXVIII B 1/13, which is performed in the following manner:
The first of the two curves of 1/13 is interpreted by two notes of equal duration and of the same pitch. The second of these two notes ends with a small ascending glide that prepares the following three-note ornament, a link between the two curves. The second curve is interpreted by a single short note. The brevity of this note is indicated by the turned-in end of the second #2 curve.
#2 A
This symbol is a variant of curve #2. While there is a small difference in its written form, there is practically no difference in the interpretation of the two curves. #2A can be interpreted as either one note or, less frequently, as a two-note feature, both notes having the same pitch and equal durations.
The interpretation of the curve as a single note followed by a çad can be observed in: song 38, B XIX 2/10; song 48 (25), XXV B 2/4; song 68 and XXXIV A 3/6.
Interpretations of curve #2A as a single note without a çad can be found in: song 48 (12), XXIV B 3/6; song 48 (25), B XXV 2/6; and song 55, XXX A 1/12;
As a two-note feature curve #2A usually appears without the çad sign. It can be observed in song 61, XXXII B 1/5.
Irregular interpretations of curve 2A are found in:
song 66, XXXIII B 3/11, with çad, (Despit e the notated çad, the last note is performed with a single click.)
As already stated the two-note feature is usually performed on the same pitch. An exception can be observed, for instance, in song 51, XXVIII A 2/4, where the second of the two notes is chanted a third lower than the first.
#2B
Chains of #1 or #2 curves are interpreted as simple successions of single notes representing sequences of evenly spaced beats and notes performed on the same pitch. Occasionally one or all odd-numbered (or even-numbered) beats can be subdivided. Then the second note of the subdivided beats appears a second above the first note:
In contrast to the linking procedure in the previously shown interpretation of two #2 curves, the chains have no musical linkings between the curves. One note follows the next without any ornaments and glides.
Below are listed a few examples of these chains:
Chains are also found in song 48 (22), XXV B 1/4; song 48 (23), XXV B 2/1; song 48 (24), XXV B 2/2; song 48 (27), XXV B 3/2; song 48 (29), XXV B 3/7; song 73, XXXV B 2/4, and others.
Whenever the last constituent curve is followed by a çad, the final note is prolonged and ends with a short descending glide.
#3
This very frequently occurring symbol basically indicates a rising motion although the interpretations do not always show this tendency. The curve can be interpreted as either a single note or as a two-note feature, and, occasionally, as a three-note or even four-note feature. Curve #3 can be found as (a) a single note followed by a çad, in: song 3, IV A 2/5; song 8, VII A 1/13, 2/2; song 20, XIII A 2/14; song 22, XIV A 2/13; song 23, XV A 1/12, 1/16; song 26, XV B 2/17; song 27, XVI A 2/2. When the curve is followed by the symbol , the rising and falling tendency of the final note can be observed as in: song 5, B V 1/12:
.The same interpretation may also occur before a çad as, for instance, in the above-mentioned song 8, VII A 2/2; or in song 22, XIV A 2/13, or in song 23, XV A 1/12.
(b) Most frequently curve #3 appears as a single note without a çad, as in: song 3, III B 2/8, 2/13; song 5, V B 1/6; song 6, VI A 1/8, 1/12; song 7, B VI 1/6, 1/10; song 8, VII A 1/4; song 15, XI B 1/8; song 18, XII A 2/14; song 18, XII B 1/19; song 19, XII B 2/8, 2/13; song 25, XV B 2/5, 2/6; song 27, XVI A 1/13.
In the majority of these instances the single note ends with a slight upward glide reflecting the ascending character of the curve.
(c) In some instances the single-note interpretation of curve #3, followed by a çad, is not concluded (after the slight ascent) with a descending glide which normally is indicated by the çad. The interpretation merely shows the ascending trend of the curve and appears to ignore the çad. Among these instances are song 7, VI B 1/9 and song 24, XV A 2/9.
(d) Curve #3, followed by a çad, can be interpreted as a two-note feature as can be observed in: song 5, V A 1/5; song 8, VI B 2/6, 2/12; and song 8, VII A 1/13.
(e) Curve #3, without a çad, as a two-note feature, may be observed in song 7, VI A 2/13 and song 8, VII A 1/1. Ths ascending character of the curve becomes distinct in instances such as song 18, XII A 1/3; song 22, XIV A 2/17; song 23, XV A 2/4, where the second note is noticeably higher in pitch than the first. That durations of notes in the two-note interpretations are not subject to any rules is indicated by cases in which notes are of equal durations or the first note may be shorter than the second, and, conversely, the first note may be longer than the second.
(f) Occasionally curve #3 is interpreted in a more elaborate manner than by one or two notes:
(g) Although the majority of songs do not end with #3, there are a few instances where #3 curves appear to have cadential function. These can be observed in: song 1, II B 2/4; the already mentioned song 5, V B 1/12; song 12, IX B 2/9; song 41, XXI B 1/4a; song 48 (9), XXIV B 1/4; song 48 (30), XXVI A 1/6; song 73, XXXVI A 1/6.
#3 is often linked with other notational curves. Asa constituent curve of a complex it is usually interpreted as a two-note feature in which, showing the rising tendency, the second note is higher than the first. For instance inthe first curve (#3) is
chanted as. This can be observed in song 6, VI A 1/5; song 20, XIII B 1/5; song 25, XV B 1/11.
Occasionally in this combination the two notes representing #3 are followed by a four-note ornament as in song 20, XIII A 2/7:
Of interest are some instances when #3 appears in the middle of a complex, for instance in song 22, XIV A 2/10:
This symbol appears so frequently that my survey can be confined to the first sixteen pages of the yang-yig. Again, two interpretations can be observed: one-note and two-notes.
Curve #4 appears frequently at the beginning and end of songs. At the beginning it is usually interpreted by two notes of the same pitch and of equal duration, representing the steady, even pulse mentioned before. At the end of strophes or songs, or when followed by a çad, the curve is usually interpreted as a single note. There are, however, several different interpretations which are shown below.
The following are types of interpretations with and without çad.
(a) singlenotewithçad:
song 2, III A 1/4; song 3, IV A 1/5, 1/9, 2/4; song 5, V A 1/9, 2/2, /9; song 5, B V 1/2, 1/9; song 6, VI A 1 /13a; song 7, VI A 2/1, 2/3, 2/5, 2/15; song 7, VI B 1/2, 1/8; song 8, VI B 2/11; song 15, XI B 1/4; song 17, XII A 2/1; song 18, XII B 1/2; song 19, XII B 2/10; song 20, XIII A 2/2, 2/5, 2/11; song 20, XIII B 1/3, 1/11; song 21, XII B 2/11; song 22, XIV A 1/16, 2/1; song 23, XIV B 2/2; song 23, XV B A 1/10, 2/3; song 26, XVI A 1/7; song 27, XVI A 2/7; etc.
(b) singlenotewithoutçad:
song 3, IV A 1/4, 2/3, 2/14; song 5, V A 1/10, 2/10; song 6, VI A 1/7; song 7, VI B 1/4, 1/12; song 14, XI A 1/9; song 15, XI A 2/3, 2/5, 2/10; song 15, XI B 1/3, 1/9; song 17, XII A 2/7, 2/9, song 18, XII B 1 /100; song 20, XIII A 2/9; song 2 0, XIII B 1/2, 1/13; song 21, XIII B 2/13; song 22, XIV A 1/17; song 23, XV A 1/9; song 24, XV A 2/6; song 25, XV B 1/5, 1/9, 1/10, 2/7, 2/8; song 26, XVI A 1/7; etc.
(c) twonoteswithçad:
song 3, III B 2/4,2/12; song 3, IV A 1/2, 1/13; song 6, VI A 1/4; song 7, VI A 2/8; song 14, XB 2/4; song 17, XII A 1/2, 1/5, 1/7, 2/4; song 20, XIII A 2/11; song 21, XIII B 2/16; song 22, XIV A 1/7, 2/7; song 23, XIV B 1/4; song 26, XV B 2/10; song 26, XVI A l/4a; etc.
(d) twonoteswithoutçad:
song 3, III B 2/11; song 4, IV B 1/1, 1/2, 1/12; song 5, V B 1/10; song 6, V B 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/10; song 6, VI A 1/1, 1/2; song 7, VI A 1/14, 1/15, 1/16, 2/12, 2/14; song 17, XII A 1/1; song 18, XII A 2/10, 2/11, 2/12; song 19, XII B 1/11, 1/12; song 19, XIII B 1/7; song 2 0, XIII A 1/9, 1/10, 1/11, 1/12; song 21, XIII B 2/1, 2/2, 2/3, 2/4, 2/5, 2/6, 2/7, 2/8, 2/9; song 23, XIV B 1/2, 1/3; song 2 7, XVI A 1/8, 1/9, 1/10, 1/11, 1/12; etc.
At the end of a song the curve assumes a cadential function; this can be observed in: song 3, IV A 2/14; song 6, VI A 1 /13a; song 7, VI B 1/12; song 9, VII B 2/3; song 10, VIII A 2/15; song 11, IX A 1/11; song 13,XB 2/2; song 15, XI B 1/9; song 16, XI B 2/15; song 17, XII A 2 /9a; song 18, XII B l/10a; song 19, XIII A 1/8; song 20, XIII B 1/13; song 21, XIII B 2/16; song 22, XIV A 2/18a; song 26, XVI A 1/7; song 29, XVII B 1/15; song 30, XVII B 2/9b; song 31, XVIII A 1/15; song 33, XVIII B 1/11; song 34, XVIII B 2/120; song 35, XIX A 2/4a; song 38, XX A 1/5; song 39, XX A 2/9a; song 40, XXI A 1/10; song 42; XXII A 2/11; song 46, XXIII B 1/9; song 47, XXIV A 1/12; song 48 (5), XXIV A 3/5a; song 48 (21), XXV B l/3a; song 48 (32), XXVI A 1/21; song 49, XXVI A 3/6b; song 50, XXVII A l/10b; song 50, XXVII B 2/6; song 51, XXVIII A 3/11; song 53, XXIX A 2/10; song 54, XXIX A 2/5; song 55, XXX A 2/5; song 56, XXX B 2/3; song 59, XXXI B 1/20b; song 60, XXXII A 1/17; song 61, XXXII B 1/12; song 63, XXXIII A 3/4; song 64, XXXIII B l/12a; song 65, XXXIII B 3/10; song 67, XXXIV A 2/9a; song 69, XXXIV B 1/16; song 70, XXXIV B 2/20a; song 71, XXXV A 1/13; song 74, XXXVI B 1/9; song 75, XXXVII A 2/6; song 76, XXXVIII A 1/6; song 77, XXXVIII B 2/9; song 78, XXXIX A 2/5.
While the two-note interpretations of curve #4 usually show both notes of the same pitch, there are a few readings in which the two notes represent ascending or descending motions. For instance ascending motions are found in: song 3, IV A 2/13; song 19, XIII A 1/7; song 22, XV A 1/8; and song 24, XV A 2/7. Descending motions are found in song 19, XIII A 1/8.
This curve, consisting of two “wings” that resemble a combination of curve 1A with a flattened #2 or #2A, is almost always interpreted by a minimum of two notes of equal duration and of the same pitch. When the curve is followed by a çad, the last note is prolonged.
As there are three ways of writing curve #5, the various types will be examined as they appear at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of a song in order to discover any relationship between shape and position of the curve.
Typeonewithçadappearingatthebeginningofasongorstrophe:
Typeonewithçadappearinginthemiddleofasongorstrophe:
Typeonewithçaddoesnotappearattheendofasongorstrophe.
Typeonewithçaddoesnotappearingatthebeginningofasongorstrophe:
Typeone (withoutçad) appearinginthemiddleofasongorstrophe:
Typeonewithoutçadappearingattheendofasongorstrophe:
Typetwowithçadappearingatthebeginningofasongorstrophe:
Typetwowithçadappearinginthemiddleofthesongorstrophe.
Typetwowithçadattheendofasongorstrophe:
Typetwowithoutçadatthebeginningofasongorstrophe:
Typetwowithoutçadinthemiddleofasongorstrophe:
Typetwowithoutçadattheendofasongorstrophe:
Typethreewithçadatthebeginningofasongorstrophe:
Typethreewithçaddoesnotappearinthemiddleofasongorstrophe.
Typethreewithçadattheendofasongorstrophe :
Typethreewithoutçaddoesnotappearatthebeginningofasongorstrophe.
Typethreewithoutçadinthemiddleofasongorstrophe:
Typethreewithoutçaddoesnotappearattheendofasongorstrophe.
In complexes consisting of three or more constituent curves that utilize features of #5 the central curve or curves represent the interpolated notes and the first and last curves generally represent the two wings of #5. In the following examples the original two-note feature of #5 has been indicated by the letters a and b.
Even if curve #5 appears as a constituent part of one of the big complexes,its characteristic two-note feature is frequently maintained as in:
The next three examples illustrate the combination of #5 with #12:
This curve, a combination of a concave followed by a convex curve represents an up and down motion. There are several interpretations in which the ascending trend is distinct while the descending one is partly or wholly ignored. The end of the curve has an influence on the interpretation. If the downward end stroke of the curve is long, the descent of the melodic line can be observed. If it is short, the descent in the interpretation becomes vague or is ignored. The following examples illustrate the various interpretations:
Curve #6 withçad is found in:
Curve #6 withoutçad found in:
As observed before the çad usually prolongs the last note. There are some exceptions; for instance in song 33, XVIII A 2/3, a single note interpretation of curve #6 shows only an ascending movement and no noticeable prolongation.
I should add here that the ascending trend can be either A comparison of the interpretations of curve #6 of song 18 (XII B 1/8) and curve #3 ¸ song 18 (XII B 1/9),
The characteristic rising trend can be observed in almost all #6 curves as in: song 7, VI A 2/2, 2/4, 2/6, 2/11; song 7, VI B 1/7; song 8, VII A 2/7; song 29, XVII A 2/10, 2/12; etc.
In combination with other curves, curve #6 can be interpreted in the following manner:
The following examples show three different interpretations of the same curve-complex, each using #6:
This curve-complex consists of three curves: #3, #2, #2, or #2, #2, #2. The slight concave upstroke of the first curve usually occurs when the complex stands at the beginning of a song or a strophe, while the straight or mildly convex upstroke appears when the complex is found in the middle of a song or strophe. As is to be expected, this observation does not postulate a fixed rule because there are instances where the first concave upstroke does not appear at the beginning of a song or strophe. Complex #7 is often followed by either curve, #3 or #5.
The three constituent curves of #7 are interpreted by three notes of more or less the same (basic) pitch. Each of the first two notes usually ends with a small descending glide, the third note with an ascending motion. Below are shown the frequently observed interpretations of #7:
These and similar forms of interpretations can be found in: song 3, III B 2/2, 2/5, 2/7; song 3, IV A 1/7; song 8, VI B 2/5, 2/7; song 37, XIX B 1/3; song 41, XXI A 2/3, 2/9; song 42, XXI B 1/5, 1/8, 2/2; song 5, V A 1/3; song 5, V B 1/4; song 17, XII A 1/3, 1/13; song 35, XVII B 2/13; song 3 7, XIX B 1/9; song 42, XXII A 1/11, 1/13, 1/15, 2/1; song 62, XXXII B 1/15, 2/1, 2/10; song 73, XXXVI A 1/2, 1/5; song 76, XXXVII B 1/5, 2/1, 2/6; song 77, XXXVIII B 1/4; song 79, XXXIX A 2/10, 2/12.
In some instances the third constituent curve is bent outward at its end:
Although the outward-bent third curve can be interpreted normally by a note with a rising trend, it can also be represented by notes that either maintain the same pitch as that of the first note of the group, or, when the complex is followed by a çad, by the characteristic descending glide.
If #7 is written obliquely the following interpretations can be observed:
While the three constituent convex curves of #7 are interpreted by three notes of the same pitch and duration, additional fourth notes are added to each group that indicate the underlying ascending or descending trends as are suggested by the oblique positions of the complexes.
#8
This curve-complex consists of the curves #1A, #2, #6, and #3:
Several interpretations of the complex can be found, some using only four notes, others as many as eight or more. The first concave upstroke of #8 usually appears when the complex stands at the beginning of a song or a strophe.
Some frequently occurring interpretations are shown below but other variants are also possible:
song 38, XIX B 2/1; song 76, XXXVII B 1/6; song 77, XXXVIII B 1/5, 1/9, 2/3, 2/6; etc.
song 2, III A 1/3, l/5, 2/l, 2/7; song 4, IV B l/2; song 38, XIX B 2/14; song 38, XX A l/l, 1/4; song 41; XXI A 2/4; song 42, XXI B 2/4; etc.
song 54, XXIX B 1/4
song 2, III A 116; song 8, VI B 2/3; song 8, VII A 2/6; song 38, XIX B 2/9; song 74, XXXVI A l /l0; etc.
song 4, IV B l/5; song 5, VA 1/2, 1/8, 2/3, 2/8; song 5, V B 1/3; song 8, VI B 2 / l, 2 /2; song 8, VII A 2 /5; song 42, XXI B 2/9; etc.
The foregoing examples show that the interpretation of #8 follows more or less the outlines of the four constituent curves: a rising feature is followed by two or three high pitches that correspond with the convex lines of curves #2, #6, and #3.
The interpretation of #8 in combination with other curves shows the same vague character as that of the complex, we find:
The similarity of the complexes #8 and #9 is so close that one could speak of almost identical curves. The only difference is that the first upstroke of #8 is concave, while the upstroke of #9 is straight or slightly convex. As mentioned before, curves with concave upstrokes generally stand at the beginning of songs or strophes while those with straight or convex upstrokes usually appear in the middle or at the end of songs or strophes.
Below are shown some of the various interpretations of #9:
song 5, III A 1/2; song 4, IV B 1/6; song 19, XII B 2/5; song 38, XIX B 2/1; song 64, XXXIII B 1/8; song 76, XXXVII B 1/1; song 76, XXXVIII A 1/4, 1/5; song 77, XXXVIIIA B 1/7; song 77, XXXVIII B 1/2
This curve-complex is written in somewhat the same way as #7, and like #8 and #9, with either a concave or convex upstroke. Number # 10 consists of three constituent curves which could be described as #1A, #2, #2, or as three #2 curves in succession. The curves are connected in a rounded rather than an angular manner.
The first and third constituent curves are written larger than the central one. This is reflected in the interpretation of the complex where two longer notes enclose a shorter one: Although numerous variants and elaborations appear, this long-short-long pattern seems to be the basis of #10.
The following examples illustrate the various interpretations of #10:
Occasionally changes of pitch can be observed; for instance, if we compare XXII B 1/6 with 1/7 of song 43:
Below are shown the curve complexes 1/12, 1/13, and 1/14 of XXIX B, song 54. The last note of 1/12 has a higher pitch which is indicated by the “needle.” The first (convex) constituent curve of 1/13 is interpreted with notes on the recitation level. This ends with a downward trend caused by the çad at the end of this complex. Complex 1/14, however, although beginning with a convex feature, requires an ascending motion:
The sequence of complexes 2/6 and 2/7 of XXXV B of song 73 is shown below:
The central note of 2/6 is raised, while the identical complex 2/7 shows no change in pitch. The latter interpretation is caused by the çad which brings the melodic line into a “descending” attitude.
The sequence 1/10-1/11 of XXXI A (song 58) consists of two #10 complexes which are interpreted as:
The link between the two complexes (1/10 and 1/11) is performed by a rising note at the end of 1/10 and by a three-note ornament immediately before the first note of 1/11.
A comparison of XI A 2/7 with 2/8 of song 15, two identical curve-complexes, shows the following interpretations:
The sequence 1/12 and 1/13 of XV B (song 25) is:
The sequence 2/11 and 2/12 of XV B (song 26) is interpreted in the following manner:
As already observed in the foregoing example, curve-complex #10 can also appear with two instead of three constituent convex curves. For instance of song 48(11), XXIV B 2/8; song 55, XXX A 2/l; song 58,XXXI A 2/5; song 67, XXXIV A 1/18; song 73, XXXV B 1/6; song 79, XXXIX B 2/5 is interpreted as
. The interpretation of this form of #l0 consists of the basic three notes:
; or
; or
. These notes can be obserwed in song 49, XXVI A 3/15,
, in song 54, XXIX B 1/2, and in song 55, XXIX B 2/8,
.
Occasionally #10 is enlarged by an additional convex curve: . The interpretation of this form of #10 can be observed for instance in song 71, XXXV A 1/l6,
; in song 72, XXXV A 2/7,
; song 77, XXXVIII B 1/7,
; song 77, XXXVIII B 2/l,
; song 78, XXXIX A 1/l,
; song 78, XXXIX A 1/14,
; song 79, XL A 1/5,
; song 79, XL A 1/10,
; and song 79, XL A 1/13,
.
In song 77, XXXVIII B 1/8 where one would expect at least five notes, the interpretation is:
The manifold interpretations of the various forms of #10 can be examined in the following:
song 5, V A 2/5, 2/7;
song 14, X B 2/3a;
song 14, XI A 1/7;
song 15, XI A 2/2, 2/4, 2/7, 2/8;
song 17, XII A 1/8, 1/10, 2/5, 2/6;
song 19, XII B 2/7, 2/12;
song 20, XIII A 1/13, 2/4, 2/13;
song 20, XIII B1/1;
song 23, XIV B 1/8;
song 25, XV B 1/12, 1/13;
song 26, XV B 2/11;
song 29, XVII B 1/13;
song 30, XVII B 2/7;
song 31, XVIII A 1/3;
song 33, XVIII A 2/1, 2/17;
song 36, XIX A 2/14;
song 37, XIX B 1/15;
song 39, XX A 2/5;
song 40, XX B1/12, 2/6, 2/11;
song 40, XXI A 1/1, 1/5;
song 43, XXII A 2/15;
song 43, XXII B1/6, 1/7;
song 45, XXIII A 1/7;
song 46, XXIII A 2/8;
song 46, XXIII B 1/2, 1/4;
song 47, XXIII B1/12, 2/2, 2/14;
song 47, XXIV A 1/1;
song 48, (5-6), XXIV A 3/1, 3/2, 3/10;
song 48, (11), XXIV B 2/11;
song 48, (20), XXV A 3/11, 3/12;
song 48, (30), XXVI B 1/5;
song 49, XXVI A 2/15, 3/15;
song 49, XXVI B 1/8;
song 50, XXVII A 1/12, 2/8, 2/12;
song 50, XXVII B 1/10, 2/1;
song 51, XXVIII A 1/5, 1/7, 3/6;
song 52, XXVIII B 2/4, 2/8;
song 53, XXIX A 2/5;
song 54, XXIX B 1/2, 1/13, 1/14, 2/3;
song 55, XXIX B 2/8, 2/13;
song 55, XXX A 1/6, 2/1;
song 56, XXX A 2/14, 2/15;
song 56, XXX B 1/11, 1/12;
song 58, XXXI A l/10, 1/11, 2/5, 2/13;
song 60, XXXI B 2/5, 2/8, 2/13;
song 61, XXXII A 2/6, 2/14;
song 62, XXXII B 2/4, 2/5;
song 62, XXXIII A 1/1;
song 63, XXXIII A 2/12;
song 65, XXXIII B 3/5, 3/7;
song 66, XXXIII B 3/13;
song 68, XXXIV A 3/1, 3/4;
song 69, XXXIV B 1/3, 1/6, 1/12;
song 70, XXXIV B 2/14, 2/17;
song 71, XXXV A 1/5, 1/6, 1/10;
song 72, XXXV A 2/3, 2/6, 2/7;
song 73, XXXV B 1/5, 2/1,2/6, 2/7, 2/9, 2/10;
song 75, XXXVI B 2/13;
song 77, XXXVIII A 1/11;
song 77, XXXVIII B 1/7, 1/8, 2/1;
song 78, XXXIX A 1/9, 1/14;
song 79, XL A 1/10, 1/13, 2/3, 2/4, 2/7, 2/9.
#11
This complex, related to #10, has a characteristic large convex curve at its beginning. This large curve is interpreted by a long note which is performed with a brief ascending glide followed by an equally brief descending motion. The two smaller curves that follow the large one are interpreted by three or four notes which only occasionally deviate from the basic recitation note.
In some instances the first long note followed by the up and down glides does not appear at the beginning of the interpretation, but can be observed in second or even third place in the interpretation of the complex. The following examples illustrate the wide variety of interpretations of #11:
In combination with other curves curve-complex #11 is usually interpreted by three notes df the same pitch. For instance in song 33, XVIII B 1/6 #11 is interpreted as shown:
In song 77, XXXVIII A 2/3,can be found:
#12
The khab (“needle”), often merely indicated by the annotation rtags (“sign”)or “characteristic mark”-according to Das, p. 534, also “organ of generation, ” and “description of the sexes”), is a small, steep, narrow, convex curve that never appears alone but is always part of and bulges out from a large gently curved symbol. As already mentioned in several instances the first letter (kh) of khab is carelessly written in the yang-yig (if the letter were printed it would be clearly distinguishable) and could be read as phab (“descent”). In the majority of instances there is little doubt that the curve #12 does indeed represent a “needle”; hence the word khab is being used in these discussions.
The K interpretation of the needle imitates the outline of the narrow convex curve by bending the melodic line upward by one or even two degrees and then returning it again to the pitch from where the melodic bulge had begun, generally the recitation tone.
Occasionally this up and down movement is clearly discernible as for instance in song 3, IV A 2/1. In other instances only a gentle ascent and descent can be observed as in song 3, IV A 2/8. Of interest is the interpretation of the needle in song 3, IV A 2/10. It shows the characteristic ascending motion of the melody, but in descent a four-note ornament is used instead of a descending glide:
It is important to note that the clicks in the K version cease when the raised note, the following ornament, and the end note are performed, for example in song 79, XXXIX B 1/13:
There are instances where the ornament is not used and only the ascent is shown, as in song 78, XXXVIII B 2/10:
As the needle appears frequently in the yang-yig it will suffice to examine only the first twenty pages of the manuscript. Four related types of interpretation can be observed:
(a) distinct ascent, no noticeable descent, return to initial pitch: song 3, III B 2/9; song 8, VII A 1/11; song 14, X B 2/5; song 14, XI A 1/3; song 15, XI A 2/12; song 16, XI B 2/13; song 23, XIV B 1/5, 1/10, 1/12, 2/1; song 23, XV A 1/2, 2/1; song 24, XV A 2/10; song 25, XV B 2/3; song 27, XVI B 1/2, 1/8; song 28, XVII A 1/1; song 29, XVII B 1/11; song 30, XVII B 2/1; song 33, XVIII B 2/3; song 37, XIX B 1/4, 1/8; song 40, XX A 2/16.
(b) distinct ascent, four-note ornament instead of descent: song 3, IV A 2/10; song 7, VI A 2/7; song 17, XII A 1/11; song 22, XIV A 1/8, 2/10; song 23, XIV B 1/7.
(c) distinct but short ascent, long descent (phab): song 3, IV A 2/1; song 23, XV A 1/6; song 40, XX B 2/13.
(d) ascent and descent of equal lengths combined into one feature: song 3, IV A 2/8; song 20, XIII B 1/5; song 23, XV A 1/13; song 25, XV B 1/11; song 27, XVI A 2/12; song 30, XVII B 2/9; song 31, XVIII A 1/2, 1/19.
Only very rarely is the up and down character of the curve ignored. One of these instances is song 33, XVIII A 2/7, where the needle is annotated with the word kyang (“straight,” “even”). Here the interpretation shows no fluctuation of the melodic line. The reader may wonder why the needle at all is notated if the annotation cancels its effect. One could hypothesize that the original intention may have been to prescribe an “even” up and down movement, a smoothly flowing ascent followed by a similar descent which in later interpretations was disregarded.
There are instances when it is difficult to decide whether the yang-yig shows a needle or another small narrow convex curve. A few of these doubtful curves can be found-for instance, in song 48 (25), XXV B 2/5; in song 48 (26) XXV B 2/10; in song 60, XXXI B 2/3; and song 63, XXXIII A 1/12. The K interpretations show that these curves have to be considered as needles.
In a few instances the needle is annotated with the word rngub, which means “to inhale,” in reference to a change of voice production similar to that of the “edge.” In such instances a change from normal voice production to a pressed head-voice, a “sign of sadness,” is effected. The Tibetan verb rngub-pa, which also means “to breathe” (to exhale as well as to inhale), is one of the first instructions given to a pupil when he begins his meditation exercises. The strict regulation of inhaling and exhaling eventually allows him to control his mind. Rngub-pa, therefore, can also be translated as “exhaling,” “drawing out,” which would indicate a rising and widening of the melodic line upward by one or two degrees when the needle (annotated with rngub) is chanted.
#13
The Big Descending Glide, although not notated, occurs between the end of one and the beginning of the following curve complex. The most frequently employed complex is #7. For instance: if #7 is followed by #3, or by #5 or #8, a musical linkage between the two complexes is performed despite the fact that #7 is not graphically joined to any of the following complexes. This link appears in the form of a steep descending glide that leads into the first note of the complex that follows #7. The glide generally extends for the interval of a minor sixth. Particularly suitable for this linkage are complexes of which the last convex curve of the first complex, for instance #7, curls inward and more or less dovetails with the first concave curve of the next complex as, for instance, in song 3, IV A 1/7-1/8:
The last note of 1/7 rises a little in pitch, not more than a major second, and thus “prepares” for the first note of 1/8 which is approached by the big steep glide. When chanted, the effect of the short rising feature (of 1/7) and the big glide of 1/8 reminds us somewhat of a heavy yodelling performed in slow tempo. The yodelling, however, is done without any break in the voice.
This big glide can also appear between two complexes when the last curve of the former does not dovetail with the first curve of the latter. This can be observed in song 2, III B 1/4-1/5:
In the foregoing example the ascent of the last note of 1/4 is cut short not only because the çad interrupts the flow of the melodic line, but also because of the caesura indicated by the thickening of the end of 1/4. This short breathing rest is indeed an effective preparation for the big descent that opens 1 /5.
In a few instances the big descending glide does not occur or is only hinted at, as in song 41, XXI A 2/9-2/10:
In the foregoing example there is no big glide before the first note of 2/10. As a matter of fact the glide, which touches the recitation tone and continues in its vague downward trend, is very small.
In a few instances the brief ascending glide at the end of the first complex is replaced by two distinctly performed notes in the following manner:
In the latter example the big descending glide has been disregarded. The same practice can be observed in song 1, II B 2/1-2/2.
Several glides that may serve as further examples to the foregoing explanations are: song 1, II B 1/2-1/3; song 3, III B 2/2-2/3; song 8, VI B 2/5-2/6; song 8, VI B 2/7-2/8; song 17, XII A 1/3-1/4; song 17, XII A 2/2-2/3; song 35, XVIII B 2/13-2/14; song 41, XXI A 2/3-2/4; song 41, XXI A 2/9-2/10; song 41, XXI A 2/13-2/14; song 42, XXI B 1/5-1/6; song 42, XXI B 1/8-1/9; song 42, XXI B 2/2-2/3; song 42, XXII A 1/9-1/10; song 42, XXII A 1/11-1/12; song 42, XXII A 1/15-1/16.
Another complex that can be linked to a second complex by the big descending glide is #11. This linkage, however, is rare and can be observed in only a very few instances: song 2, III A 1/7-1/8 (#ll-#9); song 2, III A 1/10-2/1 (#ll-#8).
In the majority of instances, however, no link can be found as in: song 2, III A 1/2-1/3 (#11-#8); song 3, III B 2 /10-2 /11 (#11-#4); song 3, IV A 2/2-2/3 (#11-#4); song 4, IV B 1/14-1/15 (#11-#3); song 5, IV B 2/8-2/9 (#11-#3); song 8, VI B 2/10-2/11 (#11-#3).
#14
The “edge” can appear singly or, more often, in multiple forms. This notational symbol implies one or more features to be performed simultaneously: change of pitch, change of timbre, and change of intensity of sound (diminuendo). The K performer interprets the edge by starting the note normally, invariably to the textual syllable ah. The first pitch is almost always the recitation tone. From here he performs a small upward glide, extending it approximately a minor or a major second. During this upward glide the normal voice production is changed to a nasal timbre together with a distinct diminuendo. As stated before, in my transcriptions the edge interpretation is represented by the sign placed above the note, indicating that it is to be changed in timbre and intensity. When the textual syllable (ah) is subjected to the changes of the edge interpretation, it becomes a closed and nasal or throaty ng sound:
The following example (song 2, III B 1/l) illustrates the usual edge notation and transcription:
Other sects, particularly the S, interpret the edge differently, occasionally as a brief two- or three-note ornament
without ending the fioritura with the nasal ng sound.
The K occasionally combine their own characteristic edge interpretation of the nasal ng sound with the above-mentioned fioritura, as in song 27, XVI B 1/15:
In a few instances a “reversed” edge() is used. The difference in the notation has no influence on the interpretation:
The two foregoing examples show that in the K interpretation, whenever the peak of the edge is reached, the clicks cease and at such moments the vague rhythmical progress is interrupted.
The K interpretation is basically the same in all instances when edges are notated. Occasionally there appear some edge interpretations when the notation shows no edges at all, as for instance, in song 41, XXI B 1/1a, 1/2a, and 1/3a.
Single edges may be observed in: song 5, IV B 2/5; song 27, XVI B 1/15; song 36, XIX A 2/10; song 61, XXXII A 2/8; song 61, XXXII B 1/8; song 68, XXXIV A 3/14; song XXXVII A 1/8.
Multiple edges can be observed in: song 5, V A 2/1; song 5, V B 1/1; song 36, XIX A 2/8; song 42, XXI B 2/5-6, 2/10; song 48 (12), XXIV B 2/18, song 50, XXVII A 2/6, 2/10; song 50, XXVII B 1/7, 1/12; song 52, XXVIII B 2/2, 2/6; song 64, XXXIII B 1/2; song 71, XXXIV B 3/2, 3/4, 3/7; song 72, XXXV A 2/9; song 74, XXXVI A 2/7; song 75, XXXVII A 1/6; song 79, XXXIX B 2/10.
#15
The loop appears to have no direct musical significance. Indirectly its interpretation can produce an accent which is caused by a sharply aspirated h-sound placed at the beginning of the tshiglhad below the loop. Occasionally the loop is interpreted as a prolonged or raised or ornamented note. The loop never appears alone and is always part of a larger curve or complex.
The sharply aspirated h can be observed in: song 14, X B 2/6, 2/8; song 14, XI A 1/5; song 25, XV B 2/2; song 26, XV B 2/14; song 27, XVI B 1/9; song 30, XVII B 2/2,
As already stated, the note indicated by the loop can be prolonged. At times, however, the prolongation is caused not by the loop, but by the following çad as in song 5, V B 1/11. In song 15, XI A 2/13, however, the note indicated by the loop is prolonged without a following çad.
Loop and needle often appear in succession, both being parts of the same complex. For instance, song 26, XVI A 1/3, contains two loops followed by a needle. The first loop is interpreted by an aspirated h, the second by a three-note ornament. In song 27, XVI B 1/1, one loop is followed by a needle. This sequence is interpreted by one raised note followed by a two-note ornament. In song 28, XVII A 1/10, the single loop is not followed by a needle. Here the loop is interpreted by a two-note ornament and, of course, by the characteristic aspirated h. A similar interpretation may be observed in song 30, XVII B 2/4:
Other, similar interpretations can be observed in song 23, XV A 1/3 and in song 40, XXI A 1/7 (below):
Of interest is the delayed interpretation of the second loop in song 28, XVII A 1/12:
Further interpretations of the loop can be found in: song 46, XXIII A 2/11, 2/13; song 46, XXIII B 1/3; song 50, XXVII A 1/7; song 53, XXIX A 1/11, 1/13, 2/8; song 59, XXXI B 1/15; song 60, XXXI B 2/12; song 60, XXXII A 1/7; song 63, XXXIII A 2/4, 2/13, 3/2; song 73, XXXV B 1/9; etc.
Mr. Sakyapa’s explanation of the loop, representing the view of members of his own sect, is that loops are nothing but carelessly linked curves, that the scribe instead of writing
#16 Double Curves
Double curves generally appear at the ends of strophes or songs. Two types of these curves can be observed: those that have a common starting point, where the two curves fan out from left to right, and those that are written separately, without a common starting point, where both curves move in more or less parallel directions.
The original meaning of the double curve may have been a feature that resembles the primo and secondo endings of repeated melodies of the West. As already stated many songs of Part II are not notated in their entirety. The yang-yig usually shows the notation of the first strophe and, at the end of the notated melody, a double curve indicates a primo and a secondo (or, better, a perfinire) feature which implies that the song has to be repeated once or several times. When the Lama chanted the songs for me, he concluded the single strophe by reading the lower curve of the double curve and then proceeded immediately to the next song. In the monastery, however, where practically each song was repeated several times, the upper curve would conclude all repeated strophes and thus would function as a primo, while the final strophe would be ended by reading the lower curve.
It appears that probably in recent times the original primo-secondo meaning of the double curve became obscure and, as has been shown in Part II, both curves of a double curve now are often performed one immediately after the other. One would expect the upper curve to be chanted first and then the lower one. There are, however, instances where the opposite happens and first the lower and then the upper curve is performed. There are also instances when only one of the two curves, either the upper or the lower, is chanted. In addition, there are a few chains of double curves which originally may have indicated extended primo and secondo features. In recent times, however, these chains were often used in an alternating manner. Or, if no alternation was intended, the choice as to whether to chant the upper or lower curves of the chains was made by the Master of the Chant. Below I have grouped the songs of the yang-yig containing double curves and indicated which curve has been used.
(1) Onlythelowercurveischanted: song 18, XII B 1/10; song 22, XIV A 2/18; song 3 9, XX A 2/9; song 43, XXII B 1/12; song 44, XXII B 2/17; song 45, XXIII A 2/5; song 48 (21), XXV B 1/3; song 49, XXVI B 1/16; song 51, XXVIII A 1/16; song 67, XXIV A 2/9; song 70, XXXIV B 2/20; song 75, XXXVII A 2/4; song 76, XXXVII B 2/9.
(2) Onlytheuppercurveischanted: song 23, XV A 2/5; song 48 (22), XXV B 1/8; song 73, XXXV B 2/12; song 74, XXXVI B 1/7.
(4) Alternativesandchainsofdoublecurves:
song 7, VI B, the curve placed below 1/11 and 1/12. This additional curve is merely an alternative to 1/11-1/12. Thus, either 1/11-1/12 or the lower curve can be chanted.
song 30, XVII B 2/10, 2/11, 2/12. Here are chanted 2/10a and b, 2/11 a and b, but only 2/12b, which implies that this is a secondo while 2/12a, a primo feature, would have to be used if the song is repeated.
song 36, XIX A 2/16, 2/17, 2/18. Here 2/16b is chanted first, then follows 2/16a because the two-note ornament and the çad determine this order. Then follows 2/16c. The following is not quite clear, but it can be assumed that the reading would be 2/17b and c, while 2/17a is deleted.
song 41, XXI B 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4. The reading of the first double curve is not clear; it seems probable, if we consider the rising features (A-Bb) of the melody, that the upper curve is used. Of 1/2 again the upper curve is used. This can be checked by the main tshig which is sde (pronounced de in the transcription). Of 1/3 again the upper curve (ya) is sung while the lower curve is disregarded. Then the upper curve l/4a is used in the K interpretation. It ends the song while the lower curve, l/4b, leads on to 1/5, 1/6, and 1/7, which are interpreted only in the two S versions.
song 48 (7), XXIV A 3/4. The lower curve, 3/14b, consists of three constituent convex curves which correspond to the three notes in the K interpretation. As this double curve does not appear at the end of a section, it is probable that 3/14b is only an alternative reading of 3/14a.
song 48 (17), XXV A 2/3. Here the upper curve is used while the lower curve is disregarded.
song 48 (19), XXV A 3/1. In this instance there is no doubt that the lower curve, 3/lb, is used if we consider the textual syllables and compare them with the K transcription.
song 48 (26), XXV B 3/1. The lower curve at the end of 3/1 is used. It indicates the descent of the final note of this section. The upper curve, which indicates a rising feature, would be used only if the section were repeated.
song 50, XXVII A 1/8, 1/9, 1/10. Of 1/8 and 1/9 the upper curves are used while 1/10 is read in its entirety (1/10a and 1/10b).
song 57, XXX B 2/15. Of this double curve only the upper curve (2/15a) is used.
#17 BCAD or GCAD, “Cut”
The bcad, not to be mistaken for the interpunctuation sign, the çad,is a short caesura in the melodic line, and it is notated by the thickening of the end of the notational curve. It appears in song 2, III B 1/2 and 1/3:
song 33, XVIII A 2/15
song 42, XXI B 2/7 and 2/11
song 48 (22), XXV B 1/10
#18
The thickening of the beginning of a curve means that the first note is to be accented. This accented note may be chanted higher in pitch than the following notes as can be observed in song 68, XXXIV A 3/3. Usually, however, the accent is performed without any change of pitch.
song 10, VII A 2/2 and 2/3:
#19
This wheel-shaped symbol consisting of six or seven dots placed in a circle around one central dot appears not only in musical notation but may also be found in learned books, usually not as part of the material printed by the wooden blocks, but as a marginal annotation, probably added to the text by the reading Lama.
The wheel is used when something has to be added to the notated song and text. This addition may be some musical repetition of indicated sections, new musical material to be interpolated, “drum solos,” or ritual actions. For instance in the short song 32 (XVIII A 1/16-1/19) the main tshig are: khyodlamchodphulbaḥi, which mean “to you offering is given.” At the end of this sentence (1/19) the wheel appears indicating that here the presentation of the offerings is made while the chanting stops.
In the yang-yig under consideration we find the wheel in the following places: song 15, XI B 1/5, at the end of the first strophe; song XXVIII A 2/9, at the end of the seventh strophe; and in song 57, XXX B 2/4, at the end of the first strophe. In all instances the wheel appears at the end of a song or strophe, usually one curve beyond the last main tshig, at a place where the tshiglhad condude the strophe.
The S Interpretations of the Notational Symbols
The S interpretations of the curves and curve complexs differ widely from the K interpretations, and it is practically impossible to perceive features that regularly correspond in the songs of the two sects. A few general points can be made that characterize the S readings:
(1) The predominant use of the anhemitonic pentatonic material;
(2) A comparatively free, improvisational interpretation of the notational symbols; curves and curve complexes which in the K versions appear as syllabic settings assume in the S interpretations neumatic and melismatic styles.
(3) A general trend toward shortening the songs, reducing the durations of the notes, and omitting or altering some of the tshiglhad.
While a K interpretation of a certain curve may be applied to other identical curves with some degree of reliability, the S interpretations are much more free and ambiguous, and one interpretation of a certain curve does not always and distinctly apply to that of another identical or similar symbol. A brief inspection of the S I and S II interpretations in Part II shows this remarkable latitude in reading the curves and curve complexes. This necessarily precludes a detailed and orderly comparison of K with S interpretations.
Nevertheless, a comparison is attempted below. In order to spare the reader frequent turning back of pages, the K interpretations of significant curves and complexes will be shown together with the two S versions. A comparison of the musical examples will show better than any verbal descriptions the remarkable interpretational differences between the two sects.
#1
Withoutfollowingçad
song 4, IV B 1/4:
song 4, IV B 1/9
song 15, XI B 1/l
song 16, XI B 2/8
song 26, XV B 2/13
song 28, XVI B 2/11
song 28, XVI B 2/14
song 29, XVII B 1/8
song 31, XVIII A 1/12
song 31 , XVII A 1/13
song 35, XIX A 1/15
song 40, XX B 1/4
song 40, XX B 1/9
Withfollowingçad
song 14, X B 2/7
song 22, XIV A 1/10
song 25, XV B 2/4
song 27, XVI A 2/14
song 29, XVII B 1/12
song 37, XIX B 1/10
# 1A
As mentioned before, #1A is usually the first constituent curve of a complex and appears rarely as a single, separately written symbol.
(1) Partofacomplex:
song 3, IV A 1/10
song 5, V A 1/4
song 5, V A 1/ 6
song 5 , V A 1/8
song 5, V A 2/8
song 5, V B 1/3
song 8, VII A 2/1
(2) Separatelywritten:
song 15, XI B 1/1 (without following çad)
song 7, VI B 1/9 (with following çad)
#2
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 6, V B 2/11
song 15, XI A 2/6
song 27, XVI A 2/11
(2) withfollowingçad
song 27, XVI B 1/7
song 28, XVII A 1/9
#2A
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 23, XIV B 1/11
song 28, XVII A 1/2
song 31, XVIII A 1/4
(2) withfollowingçad
song 6, V B 2/5
song 27, XVI B 1/13
#2B
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 48 (1), XXIV A 1/13; (eight #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (8), XXIV B 1/1; (eight #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (13), XXIV B 3/8; (four #1 curves linked; the first three accented, the last curve flat)
song 48 (14), XXV A 1/4; (five #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (23), XXV B 2/1; (nine #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (27), XXV B 3/2; (eight #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
(2) withfollowingçad
song 31, XVIII A 1/1; (four #2 curves linked)
song 48 (3), XXIV A 2/6; (nine #l curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (4), XXIV A 2/7; (four #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (15), XXV A 1/8; (five #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
song 48 (24), XXV B 2/2; (seven #2 curves linked; the last curve flat)
#3
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 3 , III B 2/8
song 3 , III B 2/13
The reason for the descending glide in the S II interpretation is the sequence 2/12-2/13: . The K and S I interpretations do not perform the glide because the çad interrupts the melody at 2/12. In S II, however, the çad is ignored.
song 4, IV B 1/15
song 5, IV B 2/7
song 5, V B 1/6
song 6, VI A 1/8
song 8, VI B 2/9
song 15, XI B 1/8
song 17, XII A 1/6
song 25, XV B 2/6
song 33, XVIII A 2/11
song 33, XVIII B 1/5
song 39, XX A 2/7
(2) withfollowingçad or
song 2 , III B 1/5
song 3 , III B 2/6
song 5, V A 1/5
song 5, V B l/12
song 8, VI B 2/6
song 8, VII A 2/2
song 22, XIV A 2/13
song 23, XV A 1/5
song 26, XV B 2/17
song 30, XVII B 2/6
#4
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 4, IV B 1/1, 1/2
song 6, V B 2/1, 2/2, 2/3
song 18, XII A 2/10, 2/11, 2/12
(2) with following çador
song 3 , III B 2/4
song 3, IV A 1/2
song 3, IV A 1/9
song 3, IV A 1/13
song 5, V A 2/2
song 5, V A 2 /9 , 2/10
song 5, V B 1/9 , 1/10
song 7, VI A 1/14, 1/15, 1/16, 2/1
song 7, VI A 2/14, 2/15
song 15, XI A 1/12
song 15, XI A 2/1
song 15, XI B 1/3, 1/4
song 15, XI B 1/9
song 16, XI B 2/14, 2/15
song 17, XII A 1/1 , 1/2
song 19, XIII A 1/5, 1/6, 1/7, 1/8
#5
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 3, IV A 1/1
song 21, XIII B 2/14
song 29, XVII B 1/6
song 33, XVIII B 1/1
(2) withfollowingçad
song 3 , IV A 1/6
song 18, XII B 1/5
song 23, XIV B 1/13
song 26, XV B 1/2
song 34, XVIII B 2/2
song 37, XIX B 1/21
song 39, XX A 1/14
#6
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 2 , III A 2/8
song 8, VII A 3/2
song 15, XI A 2/11
song 18, XII B 1/8
song 37, XIX B 1/11
song 39, XX A 2/6
(2) withfollowingçad
song 5, V A 2/6
#7
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 3, III B 2/2
song 3 , III B 2/5
song 3, III B 2/7
song 3, IV A 1/7
song 8, VI B 2/5
song 17, XII A 1/3
song 17, XII A 2/2
song 23, XV A 1/7
song 35, XVIII B 2/13
song 37, XIX B 1/9
(2) withfollowingçad
song 5, V A 1/3
#8
song 2 , III A 1/3
song 2 , III A 1/6
song 2 , III A 2/1
song 2 , III A 2/7
song 4, IV B 1/6
song 5, V A 1/2
song 5, V A 2/8
song 5, V B 1/3
song 38, XIX B 2/1
song 38, XIX B 2/5
song 38, XIX B 2/9
song 38, XIX B 2/14
# 9
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 2 , II B 2/5, 2/6, 2/7, 2/8, 2/9
song 2, III A 1/1
song 2, III A 1/8, 1/9
song 4, IV B 1/7
song 5, V A 2/4
song 16, XI B 2/2
song 19, XII B 2/4, 2/5
song 31, XVII A 1/6
song 38, XIX B 2/6
(2) withfollowingçad
song 5, IV B 2/4
song 8, VI B 2/2
#10
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 3 , IV A 1/11
song 6, V B 2/8
song 6, VI A 1/10
song 7, VI A 2/11
song 8, VII A 3/1
song 15, XI A 2/4
song 15, XI A 2/7, 2/8
song 17, XII A 1/8
song 17, XII A 2/6
song 23, XIV B 1/8
song 25, XV B 1/12
song 26, XV B 2/11
song 27, XVI B 2/2
(2) withfollowingçad
song 2, III A 2/6
song 5, V A 2/7
song 19, XII B 2/7
song 20, XIII A 2/13
song 25, XV B 1/13
song 71, XXXV A 1/5
song 71, XXXV A 1/6 (two small convex curves placed between two large outer ones)
# 11
(1) withoutfollowingçad
song 2, III A 1/7
song 2, III A 1/10
song 3, III B 2/10
song 4, IV B 1/3
song 4, IV B 1/14
song 14, XI A 1/8
song 16, XI B 2/12
song 19, XII B 2/9
song 20, XII A 2/1
(2) withfollowingçad
song 2, III A 1/2
song 5, V A 1/7
song 5, V B 1/7
song 8, VI B 2/4
song 8, VII A 1/2
song 8, VII A 1/10
song 23, XIV B 1/6
# 12
song 8, VII A 1/9
song 8, VII A 1/11
song 14, XI A 1/3
song 16, XI B 2/13
song 17, XII A 1/11
song 20, XIII A 2/7
song 22, XIV A 2/10
song 23, XIV B 1/10
song 23, XV A 1/5
song 25, XV B 1/11
song 25, XV B 2/1
song 27, XVI B 1/8
song 31, XVIII A 1/2
song 34, XVIII B 2/3
#13
As mentioned in Part II, the descending glide that links complex #7 with curves #3, #5, or complex #8, is not distinctly interpreted in the S versions (unlike the K interpretation). Below are shown a few examples that display changes of pitch in the S versions where, in the corresponding places of the K versions, the glide is used.
song 2, III B 1/4-1/5
song 3, III B 2/5-2/6
song 3, III B 2/7-2/8
song 3, IV A 1/7-1/8
song 8, VI B 2/7-2/8
song 17, XII A 1/13-1/14
song 17, XII A 2/2-2/3
#14
As already mentioned the S interpretation of the edge is different from that of the K. The S interpretation, instead of employing the rising and “closed” nasal sounds of the K, generally uses various forms of short fiorituras. Occasionally the multiple edges are interpreted by brief sequences of notes of the same pitch, and each note is slightly separated from the next by a mild accent or emphasis. There are instances where the S interpretations ignore the edge, and there are also a few occasions when the S interpretations makes use of the characteristic features of the K interpretation.
song 5, IV B 2/5 (one edge)
song 5, V A 2/1 (four edges)
song 5, V B 1/1 (four edges)
song 36, XIX A 2/8 (two edges)
song 36, XIX A 2/10 (one edge)
song 42, XXI B 2/5-6 (four edges)
song 42, XXI B 2/10 (three edges)
song 48, (12), XXIV B 2/18 (two edges)
song 48 (13), XXIV B 3/13 (two edges)
#15
While the K treat the loop as an indicator of a sharply aspirated h sound, the S generally ignore it. As already mentioned the S consider the loop to be nothing but a careless manner of linking two simple convex curves.
#16
The S interpretations of double curves are ambiguous. In one instance the double curve may be ignored, while in another it may be chanted as a single note, as several repeated notes, or as a vague downward glide. For instance:
(1) withacommonstartingpoint
song 22, XIV A 2/18
song 23, XV A 2/5
(2) withoutacommonstartingpoint
song 30, XVII B 2/10-2/11-2/12
song 49, XXVI B 2/11
#17
The S interpretations of the bcad are vague. This can be observed in the following examples:
song 33, XVIII A 2/15
song 42, XXI B 2/7
song 42, XXI B 2/11
song 48 (22), XXV B 1/10 (rbadbead, “cut off”)
#18
The thickening of the curve at its beginning, which indicates an accent in the K interpretations, is not observed by the S.
#19
The S interpretation of the wheel is similar to that of the K. It signifies an interpolation, an addition, or an interruption of the song by a ritual procedure. In all these instances the drum beats are continued, even when the chanting has stopped and the ritual procedure is in progress. The drumming then consists of “normal beats, each followed by two light ones”:
The use of the “solo drum” during these ritual procedures can be found occasionally in K monasteries. In some monasteries the drum will be stopped during the ritual procedure, and in others the drum will continue its beats until the chanting of the next song is resumed. The underlying thought is to keep the monks aware by the drum beats of the tempo and rhythm of the following song during the ritual procedure.
#20
The çad and the symbol are well known by all sects and receive the same interpretations: temporary and full stops respectively.
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