“Index” in “Words and Silences”
INDEX
Adam, 132
aesthetics, 119, 143, 245; Baptist style, 175; in human-reindeer relationship, 26
Agamben, Giorgio, 276n2
agency, 14, 16–17, 37, 92, 131–132, 137, 139, 148, 150, 180, 201–202, 245, 265n27, 269n2, 276n28
Alekseyenko, Yevgenia, 9
Aksarka, 49
alcohol (vodka): being offered to Nenets, 22, 48, 65; in Christians’ rhetoric, 89–90, 96, 123, 149, 150, 160; and coupons, 63; destructiveness of, 70, 95–96, 166, 175, 190, 250 (see also devil); and hospitality, 78, 95, 250; and imitating Russians, 43, 61; offered to spirits, 97, 141, 155, 161, 175, 176f, 186, 270n5 (see also sacrifice); rejection motivating conversion, 37, 85, 94–98, 247, 250; and singing, 182 (see also personal song); struggling to abandon, 96, 200, 204. See also ikota, Independents, non-Christians, spirits
allowances, 66–67, 69–70, 143, 265n28
all-terrain vehicle (vezdekhod), 3, 54, 119, 121, 122f, 125; “white vehicle”, 3, 146
All-Union Council of Evangelical Christians-Baptists: Baptists dissatisfied with, 113; complying with the state regulations, 113, 115; formation of, 112; monitored by the authorities, 112, 116; and Vorkuta Pentecostal Church, 268n2. See also Council of Churches of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, Pentecostals, Registered Baptists, Unregistered Baptists
Amderma, 24, 51, 55, 64f, 65f, 66–67, 96, 181, 265n28; and Gulag, 47, 49; Village Council of, 63
anger, 200, 232–233, 280n12. See also emotion, heart, sin
animists, 4, 10, 37, 243, 247, 257n4, 258n8, 260n26, 272n24; and ontology, 33–34; and rituals, 23, 34. See also ethics, non-Christians, “pagan”, promise, sacrifice
antireligious campaign: and Khrushchev, 112; and Soviet institutions, 112–113. See also atheism
Arctic Ocean, xiv, 3, 24, 25, 47, 56; and missionaries’ ends of the earth, 121–122. See also ends of the earth
Arkhangelsk, 50, 119, 264n22; Province of, 56
army, 4, 49, 50, 53–54, 60, 67, 222; and Baptists, 112, 116; conscripted to, 49, 61, 67, 265n25, 268n9; Nenets trading with personnel from, 32, 55, 59f
articulacy: missionaries demanding, 14, 178, 217, 246, 273n5. See also Baptist language, language, speech
Asad, Talal, 81–83
atheism: atheist agitators in Vorkuta, 112–113; League of Militant Atheists, 112; in a life story of a Nenets, 62, 96; and the Soviet state, 9. See also antireligious campaign, heart
Augustine, 280n14
Austin, J. L., 12, 16–17, 191, 194, 199, 201, 213, 276n2
authoritative discourse, 205, 209, 214–215, 276n2
authority, 202; among Christians, 13, 78–80, 146, 148, 166, 207–208; and women, 97
autonomy (value), 32, 167, 173, 226–228. See also Independents
Avvakum, archpriest, 259n15
Badiou, Alain, 83–84, 102, 236–237, 281n16
Bakhtin, Mikhail, 201–202, 214–215, 237–238
baptism (ritual), 2f, 3, 5, 6, 92, 93, 118, 203–213, 225; compared among Baptists and Pentecostals, 93, 143; examination before, 16, 204; by immersion, 205, 268n10; and intentionality, 165, 209 (see also intention); Nenets version of, 36; and Nenets women, 93; among Pentecostals, 140, 143-144, 145f, 149, 208; and postbaptismal service, 209–213; as a promise, 11, 205; Spirit baptism, 148, 150. See also prayer, sermon
Baptist language, 13, 102, 197–219; and automatism, 218; and entextualization, 206; focused on representation and intention, 196; and language ideology, see language ideology; as love-talk, 215–216 (see also love speech); and public speaking, 145; and rigidity in rituals, 205–209, 278n15; as “speaking Baptist”, 204, 238, 264n23; struggling with, 216–217; and witnessing, 215. See also articulacy, language, prayer, repentance, sermon, speech, witnessing, words
Baptist missionaries, 3–4, 77, 101, 104–130; author’s relations with, 105–108; compared to Pentecostals, 143, 148, 151, 160; competing with Pentecostal missionaries, 5, 6, 139–148; complaining over converts’ ignorance, 246; and evangelizing strategy, 132, 181, 267n10; and language barrier, 269n15; as matchmakers, 270n11; on Pentecostals, 147; perceived as “foreign” in Russia, 36; prohibit women to sermonize, 146; on secular entertainment, 127, 134; on translating, 126, 258n7, 269n16 (see also translation); and women, 146. See also conversion, pastor, Pentecostal missionaries, Unregistered Baptists
Baptists. See Baptist missionaries, Registered Baptists, Unregistered Baptists
Basso, Keith, 172
Baturin, Nikolay, 111
bears, 189
Belarus, 68
belief, 11, 32, 81, 244, 245, 258n8, 270n5; and language, 4; and loyalty, 150, 199, 208; system of, 8. See also certainty, devil, God, Jesus
Beloyarsk, 267n10
Belykh, Viktor, 268n8
Benedictines, 197
Besnier, Niko, 214
Bialecki, Jon, 224, 279n4, 282n1
Bible (scriptures), 36, 68, 90, 92, 127, 134–136, 138, 153, 154, 156, 157, 162, 182, 198, 199, 201–202, 206–207, 209, 214, 215, 218, 219, 220, 268n10, 276n1, 280n11; Nenets translations from, 14, 126, 258n7 (see also translation); as physical copies, 88, 110, 135, 144–145, 151, 269n4; quoting from, 10, 79, 88, 135, 201, 218, 243, 277n10; reading of, 3, 6, 14, 15f, 78–79, 93, 98, 114, 118, 143, 146, 200, 210, 221, 225–226, 233, 234–235, 277n6, 277n10; Russian version of, 126. See also God’s Word, literalism, sacred objects
Billig, Michael, 174
birth, 33, 162, 264n22; birth control denounced by Baptists, 128–129; certificates, 65, 264n21; and Nenets spirits, 142, 230, 270n9, 271n13; and silent “confession”, 274n11
Bjørklund, Ivar, 68
body, 4, 13, 194, 222, 279n2; Christian view of, 90, 129, 266n1; ikota in, 175, 226 (see also ikota); of a khekhe, 164–165; and soul, 187. See also language, soul
Bolshezemelskaya District, 47–48, 54, 263n15
Bolshezemelskaya tundra. See Great Land tundra
born-again Christian, 107, 200, 202, 204, 205, 210, 214, 218, 220, 222, 224–225, 269n15, 276n27. See also conversion
bridewealth, bride-price (nye mirq), 23, 226, 273n8, 279n5. See also matchmaking
Brown, Kate, 46
Brusco, Elizabeth, 97
burial, 4, 23, 91, 190, 265n27. See also dead, death
Butler, Judith, 179–180, 192, 194, 199, 276n29
burning of sacred objects. See fire, sacred objects, shaman
California, 224
Calvinists, 132, 201, 218, 231
cards (playing), 78, 90, 177, 190, 204, 272n25
Cassian, John, 222–223
Castrén, Matthias, 92
Central Asia, 153, 261n29, 267n12
certainty: and belief, 208, 210, 230–231, 233, 245, 279n9; and lack of it, 203–204, 275n25; of salvation, 223, 224, 231, 240, 251 (see also salvation)
Cervantes, Miguel de, 158
character (moral), 183, 191, 193, 219, 220, 233–234, 235, 245, 276n26, 280n11. See also ethics
Chernov, Georgi, 23–24
Christ’s body (church), 102, 116, 228. See also Jesus
Chukchi, 261n29; as pejorative label, 267n12
Chukhontsev, Vladimir, 267n11
city (marq), 3, 24, 62, 63, 89, 105, 110, 113, 148, 216, 267n12; dangers related to, 103, 246; prayer house in, 77, 80, 86, 135; youth being attracted to, 29, 99–100, 173, 223 (see also youth). See also sedentarization, Vorkuta
clan-community (obshchina), 81, 88, 257n2, 265n26, 265n28, 266n30. See also Tybertya, Yamb-To
clan, 23, 188, 262n4, 280n12. See also kin, name
climate change, 260n21
coherence, 240; Christians striving for, 11–12, 38, 233, 235. See also ethics, self-transformation
collective farm (kolkhoz), xiii, 8, 9, 19, 26, 48–49, 52–53, 61, 62, 227, 250, 264–265n25; “Friendship of Peoples” in Karataika, 58; Independents joining, 62–63, 260n25, 265n26; members compared to Independents, 25, 32, 37, 39, 40, 58, 60, 62, 91, 98, 222; pressuring Independents, 53; and privatization, 64, 258n12; “Red October” in Ust-Kara (Kara), 53, 56, 62, 67, 95, 266n30; as total social institution, 19; “Vyucheiskiy” in Nelmin-Nos, xiii, 42f; “Yadey Segery” in Karataika, 263n10. See also collectivization, state farm
collectivization, 19, 24, 44, 46, 47–49, 52, 54–55, 259n14, 262n6, 263n8; in the late Soviet period, 58; Nenets Independents avoiding, xiii, 4, 19, 44, 49–53; in post-Soviet period, 32, 266n30; Soviet ideology of, 19–21. See also collective farm, Independents, kulaks, reindeer, state farm
Colombia, 97
Comaroff, Jean, 7
Comaroff, John, 7
commitment, 6, 8, 11, 14, 16, 77, 89, 144, 177, 193, 203, 208, 210, 215, 216, 217, 220–223, 225–226, 240, 250, 276n2, 278n13, 281n20
Communists, 8, 23, 46, 51, 61, 62, 249; Christians on, 154; Communist Youth League (Komsomol), 60, 112–113, 263n7; compared with Christians, 124–125, 236, 237, 247, 249, 263n7, 281n16, 281n19, 282n1; and evangelicals, 112–113; Nenets Independents on, 161, 186; on the origin of humans, 43–44; as Party activists, 5, 34, 48, 61; repressing other lutsaq, 47; spirits punishing, 137; and their values, 8, 39. See also rupture, sincerity
consciousness: colonization of, 7, 10; and evil, 150–151; and God’s Word, 134; located in idols, 132–133; politics of, 83; in Soviet ideology, 9, 53, 61; unhappy, 224. See also conversion
Constantine, 105
conversion, 33, 77–103; and alcohol, see alcohol; anthropological research on, 262n3; collective, 93; and consciousness, 7, 10, 11–12, 83 (see also consciousness); and cultural logic, 244–245; and cutting relations, 7, 228, 244; and ethical self-transformation, see ethics, self-transformation; and generations, 6, 10, 98–101, 245–246, 247 (see also youth); going along with, 246; and language, see language; as learning, 13, 17, 204, 209, 215; and modernity, see modernity; narratives, 88–93, 263n7; Pauline model of, 84, 92; and perspective-taking, 235–241 (see also perspective-taking); reasons for, 36, 40, 60, 62, 71–72, 85, 94–96, 99, 166, 246, 262n1; as rejection of the old, 32, 217, 229; resistance to, see non-Christians; role of local actors in, 85–86; sustaining, 210, 244; utilitarian and intellectualist approaches to, 40, 85, 262n2. See also baptism, Baptist missionaries, devil, ethics, Independents, Pentecostals, personhood, promise, Protestantism, Russian Orthodoxy, shaman, women
Corbey, Raymond, 131–132
Council of Churches of Evangelical Christians-Baptists: ideology of separation from the state, 115; its leaders repressed, 114; split from All-Union Council, 114. See also All-Union Council of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, Unregistered Baptists
Crapanzano, Vincent, 279n9
curses, 16, 135, 173, 185–189, 195, 229, 274n17, 275n19, 278n16. See also evil word, gossip, witchcraft, words
dead (the deceased), 4, 26, 164, 183, 190, 230, 260n21, 271n19, 273n5, 274n13, 275n23. See also burial, death, emotion, ngylyeka
death, 49, 95, 137, 160, 164, 179, 190, 265n27; Christians’ rhetoric of, 118, 151, 152, 178, 181, 205, 224; leaving tundra life as, 102; in Nenets cosmology, 187, 267n5; violent, 166, 247. See also alcohol, burial, dead, devil, Nga
decision-event, 84, 89, 236. See also truth-event
Descola, Philippe, 261n27
devil (demon, Satan): acting through alcohol, 96–97, 182 (see also alcohol); acting through idols, 132–133, 138–139, 142, 149–151, 160, 161, 162, 189, 205 (see also idol); Baptists regarding Pentecostals to be possessed by, 147; being possessed by, 34, 98, 163; believing in, 162, 184, 247; challenging missionaries, 99, 121, 123–124; in conversion narrative, 89–90; entrapping Christians, 105, 107, 114; fearing, 135, 148; hindering conversion, 181, 213; and human words, 193; and Internet, 120, 127; one and many, 271n18; Orthodoxy as worship of, 36; and power of name, 162, 187, 218, 278n15; and singing, 182; and Soviet Union, 126, 278n12; as underworld spirit, 78; vigilance in regard of, 225, 280n14; and the world, 83, 107, 109, 115, 120, 127, 129, 224. See also idol, God, khekhe, Nga, ngylyeka, spirits
dignity (sense of): and conversion, 40, 246; and private herders, 32, 173
Dinka, 26
disease (illness), 91, 142, 161, 184, 187, 191, 267n5, 270n12, 278n14; of reindeer, 28, 260n21; as spirit, 141, 172, 230. See also epidemic
Ditskaln, Aleksandr, 48
Dobzhanskaya, Oksana, 274n13
Dolgans, 273n8
Donbas, 53
dreams, dreaming, 108, 161, 184–185, 195, 235, 260n20, 274n14
Dumont, Louis, 117
Duranti, Alessandro, 195
emotion (feelings), 14–16, 53, 127, 132, 142, 173, 279n2, 281nn18–19; and the dead, 190, 227, 273n5; and language, 4, 13, 17, 151, 185, 203, 276n28, 277n11; learning of Christian, 7, 14, 79, 102, 146, 166, 208, 209–210, 216–217, 233, 241, 243; and Nenets children, 69; Nenets concept of, 192–193, 196, 229, 280nn11–12; in personal song, 182, 183. See also anger, dead, heart, laughter, quarrels
ends of the earth, 35, 37, 121–125, 242, 247. See also Arctic Ocean, eschatology
English (travelers), 22
Enets language, 258n10
Engelke, Matthew, 135, 224, 279n9
epic song (yarabts, syudbabts), 175, 184, 274n15. See also singing
epidemic, 45, 58, 98, 227, 260n21. See also disease, reindeer
eschatology (end times), 37, 105, 119–129, 151, 154, 261n29; as Second coming, 35, 119–122, 132, 224. See also ends of the earth, temporality
Estonians, 210
ethics, 153, 261n27, 281n17, 282n1; among animists, 33, 227; in conversion, 6–8, 10–15, 82, 95, 208, 219, 220–223, 225–226, 228–229, 231–241, 245, 247–250, 279n4; and language, 12–13, 15, 17, 84, 171, 174, 204, 215, 217; and morality, 10, 257n5; among Soviets, 281n19. See also character, conversion, language, morality system, self-transformation
Eucharist (Lord’s Supper), 209, 210, 261n27
Evans-Pritchard, E. E., 275n25
evil word (vevako vada), 186–189, 193, 230, 280n11. See also curses, gossip, heavy word, syaqmei pad, words
Ewe, 83
exchange, 26, 44, 95, 153, 178, 224, 227, 239, 244, 264n18, 279nn5–6; of gifts, 4, 26, 36, 177, 193, 196, 226, 229, 244, 273n8. See also non-Christians, personhood, reindeer
Falwell, Jerry, 277n6
fasting, 163, 205. See also baptism, prayer, words
Felman, Shoshana, 194
Festinger, Leon, 273n9
Figes, Orlando, 46
Finno-Ugric (Uralic) languages, 258n10
Finland, 49
fire, 78, 171, 177, 280n10; for burning idols, 138, 142, 151, 154–155, 157, 161; of hell, 151, 154, 281n21; speaking to warn, 189, 275n23; spirit (tu yerv, tu khada), 155, 189. See also idol, sacred objects, speech, spirits
fish, fishing, 32, 39, 44, 45, 49, 54, 55, 80, 88, 95, 123, 186, 216, 241, 260n21, 265n25. See also pike, yid yerv
forgiveness, 12, 62, 79, 90, 124, 138, 163, 181, 201, 203, 210, 214, 218, 225, 231, 233, 241, 243, 278n14. See also prayer, purification, repentance, sin
Forsyth, James, 23
Foucault, Michel, 10, 222, 231, 239, 257n5, 274n11, 279nn2–4
foxes, 32, 49, 55, 62, 273n8. See also furs
Friday Masowe Church, 135
furs, 22, 32, 44, 49, 55, 62, 140, 146, 177, 264n18, 279n8; fur tax (yasak), 22. See also foxes, taxation
future, 125, 247, 250, 251; Christians imagining, 7, 37, 81, 83, 89, 99, 102, 105, 119, 125, 185, 201, 224, 242; foretelling, 8, 50, 190, 273n3; Nenets not discussing, 196, 226; Soviets on, 48, 154. See also past, salvation, shaman, temporality
Gagarin, Yuriy (Soviet historian), 112
geologists, 23–24, 32, 46–47, 54, 55
Germans (of Volga), 112
Ghana, 83
gift. See exchange
glossolalia. See speaking in tongues
God (Christian deity): authority of, 86, 186, 213–214; believers’ relationship with, 11, 13, 93, 99–102, 110, 145, 157, 160, 198–219, 220–225, 229–241, 242–243; believing, 3, 133, 161, 193, 203, 205, 208 (see also belief); children of, 82, 100, 105, 108–109, 114, 116, 117, 199, 239; conforming to the will of, 3, 80, 86, 91, 101, 121, 229, 230–249, 280n14; going against the will of, 34, 62, 78, 100, 162, 205, 232, 271n17, 280n13; and his performative speech, 179, 201; against idols and devils, 133, 137–138, 149–150, 156 (see also devil, idol); ignorance of, 202; incarnated, 134–135; instituting rulers, 114–115; intentions of, 206, 223, 234 (see also intention); as judge, 120; loving, 90, 153–154, 180; and making choices, 82, 96; miraculous intervening of, 124; missionaries as instruments of, 90, 124, 277–278n12; oneness of, 147, 149; perspective from, 102, 185 (see also God’s-eye view); and promise, 219, 220–221, 225, 233 (see also promise); protection of, 34, 81, 96, 150, 163, 166, 174, 193; and providence, 68, 88, 90, 93, 99, 105–106, 121, 123, 126–127, 201; refusing to respond to, 178, 179; as savior, 93, 210, 213, 229; sees in a person, 108, 181, 209, 239; separation from, 223–224; and singing, 182; speaking to, 12–17, 79, 89, 98, 145, 148–151, 163, 171, 172, 174, 176, 184, 200–205, 208–219, 231–232, 238, 243, 278n14 (see also prayer); submission to, 15, 202, 217, 225; and supremacy over Satan, 124. See also Jesus, God’s-eye view, God’s Word, Holy Spirit, name, Num, tolerance, words
God’s-eye view, 11–220, 234–241. See also God, perspective-taking
God’s Word (Word of God), 14, 68, 78, 93, 110, 121, 124, 134–135, 176, 178, 193, 200–202, 209, 214–215, 216, 218, 270n8. See also Bible, God
Golovnev, Andrei, 26, 271n13, 272n23
goods (consumer goods), 22, 47, 54, 59, 63, 86, 88, 128, 246. See also trade
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 127
gossip, 62, 183, 185, 188–189. See also curses, evil word, words
Great Land tundra (Bolshezemelskaya tundra), xiii, 3, 22, 23, 24, 37, 45, 52, 259n13, 259n17, 264n21, 270n5, 275n19; dialect of, 258n10, 275n24
Greek Orthodox, 197
grey-zone herders, 265n25. See also yedinolichniki
Groys, Boris, 124
Gulag (labor camps), xiii, xvi, 3, 24, 44, 46–47, 48–49, 50, 54, 110, 112, 141, 218, 259n13, 263n15, 264n17, 268n8. See also Amderma, Khabarovo, repressions, Stalinist period, Vaigach, Vorkuta
Gyda, 122, 177, 264–265n25
Habeck, Otto, 264n20
hair, 89, 90–92, 208, 266n4. See also shaman
Hamlet, 146
Harding, Susan, 13, 102, 200, 215, 277n6, 279n9
hate speech, 180. See also love speech, speech
heart: in atheists’ rhetoric, 113; in Christians’ rhetoric, 79, 82, 96, 108, 116, 117, 132, 133, 134, 149, 154, 161, 164, 181, 200, 201, 210–213, 214, 219, 223, 231, 232, 233, 269n15, 277n4, 277n9, 278n1; in Nenets vocabulary, 280n11; of reindeer, 193. See also Holy Spirit, interiority
heavy word (sanggovo vada), 191–193. See also curses, evil word, intention, words
Hefner, Robert, 240
Heidegger, Martin, 195
Holy Spirit, 16, 78, 80, 92, 93, 102, 108, 114, 121, 123, 127, 135, 143, 145, 146, 164, 176, 200, 201, 205, 209–210, 210–213, 217, 224–225, 232, 234; blasphemy of, 218, 231, 275n18; growing inside, 233–234, 240. See also baptism, Jesus, God, prayer
Horton, Robin, 262n2
human-animal relations, 24, 26, 33. See also aesthetics, bears, predators, reindeer, wolves
Humphrey, Caroline, 83–84, 178–179, 180, 208, 236, 239, 261n27
hunters, 55, 61, 62, 264n25, 273n2
icon: Eastern Orthodox theology of, 134–135; in Nenets camps, 23, 36, 133, 135; Pentecostal missionary on, 155–160, 272n24. See also Jesus, khekhe, kissing, lutsa, Russian Orthodoxy, sacred objects, sacrifice
idol, idolatry: Baptists considering modern technologies as, 87, 123, 134; Christians on, 131–139, 142–143, 149–151, 154–165, 202–205, 270n8, 270n5, 272n25; and devils, 271n18; Martin Luther on, 133. See also devil, khekhe, sacred objects
ikota (hiccup spirit), 97–98, 175, 218. See also alcohol, devil, spirits
illiteracy, 61, 62, 68, 80, 87, 113, 135, 145, 146, 238, 265n26
Ilongots, 195
Independents, xiii-xiv, 5, 10, 21, 23, 24, 29, 117, 129, 164, 186, 218, 260n21, 264n18; and alcohol, 94–98 (see also alcohol); avoiding the authorities, 22, 36, 44–60, 263n15; compared to collectivized Nenets, 39–40, 60–63; compared to Unregistered Baptists, 129–130; conversion of, 81, 85–94, 104, 222, 247–249 (see also conversion); generational differences among, 98–101; getting divided, 244; names for, 4, 29, 262n6; in the post-Soviet period, 63–70, 260n25, 265n26, 266n30; seen as last true nomads, 32; and the value of independence, 29, 32, 226–228. See also autonomy, collective farm, collectivization, Communists, past, promise, Ural Nenets, Yamb-To, yedinolichniki
individualism: and Christians, 117, 164, 226, 234, 243; and Nenets, 226; and shamanism, 261n26. See also interiority, personhood, Protestantism
industrialization, 23–24, 46–47, 151
Ingold, Tim, 195
intention, intentionality, 14, 17, 215, 217, 275n24, 278n16, 279n2; attribution of, 191, 192, 195; and Christians, 12, 108, 192, 193, 196, 198, 201–202, 206, 217–218, 229, 234, 240, 241, 278nn14–15; mismatch of, 160, 166, 219; and Nenets personhood, 194, 195, 244; in ritual, 203, 208–209; Western and non-Western concepts of, 195, 276n30; and words, 185, 188, 195, 226. See also baptism, Baptist language, heavy word, interiority, responsibility, sincerity, speech, words
interiority (inner self): and Christian personhood, 14–15, 91, 102, 127, 145–146, 163, 178, 192, 199, 203, 208–210, 213, 217, 219, 224, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 243, 249, 266n1, 269n15, 280n11; church as collective, 78, 116; and idols, 138; in Western dichotomous thinking, 195, 217, 274n9. See also intention, sincerity
interpellation, 179, 242. See also name
Islam, 217, 235–236, 240, 257n4
Islavin, Vladimir, 273n8
Izhma Komi, 36, 41, 45, 56, 202, 258n10, 264n20. See also Komi
Ivanova, Aytalina, 275n25
Jaggar, Alison, 277n11
Jains, 240
Jerusalem, 121
Jesus (Christ), 3, 78, 80, 90, 110, 115, 117, 148, 149, 151, 157, 160, 165, 178, 179, 210, 211, 214, 218, 261n27, 267n1; believing in, 205, 208, 277n9; the film on, 134; ignorance of, 36–37, 125, 202; and mission command, 120–121, 125; narrow path after, 108, 202, 224, 237, 266n1; represented on icon, 156, 160 (see also icon); resurrection of, 83, 84, 92; saving from addiction, 96–98. See also God, Holy Spirit, name
Karataika, 58, 67, 123, 263n10, 264n22, 265n26
Kara: river, 264n21; sea, 44, 45, 77; tundra, 47
Karskiy Village Council, 56
Keane, Webb, 10–11, 16, 81–82, 132, 201, 228, 235–236, 249, 261n27, 276n28, 276n30, 277n11
Kets, 9
Khabarovo: church building in, 45, 48; Gulag in, 24, 47
Khaen-Sale, 165
Khabtam Pe (mountain), 141
Khadam Pe (mountain), 123, 141, 164
Khalmer-Yu, 54–55, 58, 61, 62–63, 69, 218, 263n15
Khanty, 41, 139, 223, 249, 261n29, 261n28
Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region, 258n9
khekhe, 34, 132, 142; burning of, see sacred objects; missionaries demonizing, 158, 160; in Nenets rituals, 141, 161, 186, 270n10, 271n13; obtaining and making of, 138, 141, 157, 164, 270n9, 271n14, 272n22; as relational person, 142 (see also part-person); returning of, 164–165, 166; as Russian spirits (lutsa khekheq), 45, 133, 155 (see also icon); and sacred sites, 164–165, 272n21; translation of the term, 131. See also body, devil, idol, myad pukhutsya, sacred objects, sacred site, sacred sledge, shaman, soul, spirits, syadei
Khorev, Mikhail, 113
Khoseda-Khard, 23
kin, kinship, 23, 26, 33, 50, 171, 188, 190, 192, 221, 227, 228, 239, 244, 274n13; among Christians, 91, 97, 139, 178, 239, 244, 267n10. See also clan, non-Christians
kissing, 50; among Baptists, 80, 210; of icon, 156, 160. See also icon
Komi (Republic, ASSR), 53, 56, 69, 258n9, 263n15, 266n30, 271n16, 275n24
Komi language, 60, 62, 79, 258n10
Komi people, 125, 164, 275n19, 275nn21–22. See also Izhma Komi
Korotaikha River, 25, 56, 257n2
Kostikov, Leonid, 177
Kotkin, Stephen, 264n23
Kovtun, Grigoriy, 111
Krasnoyarsk Territory, 19, 258n9
Kremlin, 115
Kryuchkov, Gennadiy, 105, 113, 115–116, 118, 119, 126–127
kulaks, 19, 29, 47, 110, 259n13, 263nn8–9. See also collectivization, shaman
labor camps. See Gulag
Laestadius, Lars Levi, 267n7
Laidlaw, James, 6, 10, 208, 217, 240, 250
Lambek, Michael, 6, 12, 13, 203–204, 219, 220, 257n4
language, 41; of Baptists and Pentecostals compared, 234, 276n27; biblical, 3, 124, 229; and body, 194; and quotation practice, 206–207; in conversion, 3–4, 10–17, 37–38, 62, 84, 90, 93, 102, 110, 126, 193, 197–199, 214–217, 219, 226, 235–238, 242–244, 269n15, 273n5 (see also articulacy); evangelical, 4, 17, 93, 110, 200, 216, 225; and gaps in understanding, 148; and internalization, 214–215, 279n9; and performativity, 16–17, 199; and personhood, see personhood; and perspective, 90, 236–238, 240, 243, 249 (see also perspective-taking); and representation, 13, 16, 132, 180, 184–185, 193–196, 198, 213, 217–218, 243. See also Baptist language, conversion, emotion, ethics, language ideology, materiality, name, personhood, prayer, Protestantism, silence, Soviet language, speech, subject-language, words
language ideology, 269n16, 273n9; Baptist, 178, 193, 198–200, 202, 206, 209, 217–218, 277n6; in mission encounter, 16–17, 172, 180, 197; Nenets, 177, 185, 193, 194–195, 276n28. See also language, literalism, words
Lapsui, Anastasia, 182–183, 270n9
Lapsui, Gennadi, 273n3
Latour, Bruno, 102, 215–216, 237
laughter, 62, 78, 87, 98, 173, 175, 183, 197, 200, 232, 233, 270n5, 271n17. See also emotion, sin
Lavrillier, Alexandra, 263n14
laying on of hands, 209, 210, 211, 212f
Ledkov, Ivan (Nenets shaman), 259n13, 275n19, 275n22
Ledkov, Vasiliy (Nenets writer), 263n8
Lehtisalo, Toivo, 270n9
Lenin, Vladimir, 46f, 48, 154, 186
Lienhardt, Godfrey, 26
literalism: among Baptists, 114, 121, 202, 207, 277n6; among Pentecostals, 133; in Soviet society, 60. See also Bible
love speech, 180, 190. See also hate speech, sermon, speech
Luhrmann, Tanya, 13
lutsa (“Russian”), 28, 241, 242, 282n2; being skillful with, 65, 86; dangers coming from, 4, 37, 39–44, 47, 49–50, 63, 67–68, 70, 72, 83, 161, 177, 227, 246, 249; folk etymology of, 260n24; Nenets becoming, 98, 100–101; regarding someone’s behavior as, 43, 61, 172, 214, 232; and their spirits, 45, 133, 155 (see also icon, khekhe); and their way of life, 28, 41, 186; unskillful person as, 42–43. See also Bible, Communists, predators
Mahmood, Saba, 217
Malozemelskaya tundra, xiii
mandalada (uprising), 21, 49–51, 263n11, 263n13. See also collectivization, shaman, yedinolichniki
marginalization (sense of), 7, 40, 70, 72, 246, 262n1. See also conversion
marriage, 51, 61, 62, 141, 229–230, 278n16; arranged, 23, 99, 139; among Christians, 4, 99–100, 128, 139, 147, 152, 268n6; between cousins, 34; and negotiations, 177, 186–187. See also matchmaking, porti, witchcraft
martyrdom: Soviet-era experience of, 36, 117–118. See also persecutions, Unregistered Baptists
Marxism (Soviet), 9, 23, 236, 247, 249–250. See also materiality
matchmaking, 177–178, 187, 247, 270n11, 273n8. See also Baptist missionaries, bridewealth, marriage, silence
materiality, 249, 265n27, 271n19; and Christians, 102, 124, 131, 132, 133–135, 139, 156, 160, 162, 245, 276n27; and language, 194, 278n14; as object of ethnography, 106–107; for Soviet Marxists, 9
Mattingly, Cheryl, 281n20
Mauss, Marcel, 277n8
Mayotte, 257n4
Mead, George Herbert, 239
medical care (by the state), 9, 23, 32–33, 58–59, 65, 82, 89–90, 162, 181, 264n19
men: becoming shift workers, 41, 42f; the Bible on, 91; and bodily gestures, 32; as Christians, 40, 65, 80, 216, 246; herding reindeer, 26, 32, 171; hiding from the authorities, 54; repressed by the Soviets, 21, 49–50; and ritual pollution, 187, 226 (see also pollution); starting independent life, 228; in the tent, 78; and urban clothing, 128; and women making decisions, 97. See also women
Mennonites, 112
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 195
Michalski, Sergiusz, 136–137
Mikola, 45, 238, 278n16. See also Nicholas
mining, 24, 47, 137; of coal, 24, 54, 99, 110, 113, 259n15, 265n29, 268n9. See also oil and gas
missionaries. See Baptist missionaries, Pentecostal missionaries
modernity, 7–8, 41, 63, 103, 132, 134, 246, 268n10; and conversion, 81–83, 85, 102, 250. See also idol, Protestantism
Mongolia, 8, 275n24; Inner Mongolia, 236
Mongols, 178
monkey (ngayatar), 43–44, 100. See also name
morality system, 7, 8, 10–11, 17, 236, 249–250, 257n5. See also ethics
Moscow, 26, 41, 58, 137, 258n7
myad pukhutsya (female spirit figure), 137, 142, 163, 270n9. See also birth, khekhe, spirits, women
myenarui (lead reindeer), 141, 247, 248f, 270n12. See also reindeer
Nadym, 122
name, naming: avoiding of, 172, 178–179, 183, 273n3; in Christians’ addresses, 107, 178, 192; of clan or lineage, 188, 190, 262n4; given by Russian Orthodox Church, 23; God’s, 218, 243; ignorance of Jesus’, 36, 262n31; injurious, 192, 194, 210, 226; invoking spirits by, 98, 187; of neighboring groups, 41–42, 257n2, 258n10; nicknames, 100–101; in passport, 148, 210–211 (see also passportization); and personhood, 16, 65–66, 183, 244; registered by authorities, 58, 65–67; and subjectivation, 179–180, 194. See also devil, God, interpellation, Jesus, language, personhood, subjectivation
Naryan-Mar, xiii, xiv, 32, 47, 48, 53–54, 60, 63–65, 68, 88, 99, 119, 162, 259n15, 264n22, 265n26, 268n5
Ned-Yu (mountain), 50
Nelmin-Nos, 261n26
Nenets language, xiii, 19, 53, 79–80, 123, 161, 258nn10–11; as barrier, 269n15; Russians’ ignorance of, 67; switching between Russian and, 3, 78, 93, 243. See also language ideology, Russian language
Nenets Autonomous Region, xiii, 19, 26, 32, 41, 48, 49, 52–54, 56, 121, 258n9, 258n11, 259n15, 263n15, 265n28
“Nenets church”, 40, 93, 269n15
Nerkagi, Anna, 272n1
Nevskiy (Orthodox priest), 270n5
Nga (Nenets deity), 43–44, 187, 271n13. See also devil, ngylyeka, spirits
Nganasan, 274n13; language, 258n10
Nganorakha (mountains), 50
Ngutos Pe (mountain), 141
ngylyeka (underworld spirit), 43, 78–79, 92, 164. See also dead, devil, Nga, spirits
Nicholas (saint), 23, 45, 46f, 202, 278n16. See also icon, Mikola
Niemi, Jarkko, 182, 274n13, 274n15
Nikon, patriarch, 259n15
Nizhnyaya Pyosha, 263n7
nomads, nomadism, xiii, 5, 10, 19, 23, 24–25, 28, 32, 39, 45, 52, 62, 68, 70, 88, 100, 108, 242, 246, 249, 251, 257n1, 258n9, 259n19, 260n21, 262n4, 263n14, 265n28; abandoning life of, 41, 98, 99; and seasonal migration, 25–26, 39, 45, 77, 86, 139, 262n4; and spirits, 271n13; the state attempting to control, 58–59; visiting settlements, 32, 61, 69, 142, 230, 246. See also Independents, pastures, reindeer, sedentarization
non-Christians (nonconverts, nonbelievers), 15, 34, 77, 91, 109, 123, 148, 166, 227, 238, 262n1, 270n12, 280n11; and alcohol, 95–97, 267n9 (see also alcohol); criticizing converts, 12, 80, 98; distanced from their Christian kin, 85, 97, 244 (see also kin); and exchange with Christians, 229, 279n5 (see also exchange); joking, 131, 139, 200; and purity, 229; resisting conversion, 34, 61, 99, 163, 172, 174, 176–179, 193; and sacred objects, 162, 189, 270n10; and words, 194, 196, 221, 232, 237, 244 (see also words). See also animists, conversion, “pagan”
nonverbal communication (gestures), 4, 6, 10, 14, 194, 197, 205, 208, 209, 210, 216, 217, 243, 260n23, 273n7. See also men, silence
Novyi Port, 122
Num (sky deity), 270n13; in converts’ rhetoric, 205, 243; shaped by Orthodoxy, 43, 202, 238; women promised to, 278n16. See also God
nyaro (pure), 230. See also pollution, purification, syaqmei pad, women
nyeney (real, human), 28, 42, 100, 183, 246. See also nomads, ontology
Obdorsk, 22
ontology, 6, 7, 16, 17, 28, 33–34, 131–132, 160, 165, 185, 195, 200, 239, 243, 261n27, 265n27, 269n2. See also animists, human-animal relations, nyeney, shamanism, words
oral, orality: and Nenets tradition, 43, 177; and written texts, 14, 78, 135, 186, 202–203, 207. See also language, words
“pagan”, xiv, 79, 91, 124, 132, 162, 218, 259n17; converts struggling with aspects defined as, 233, 238; evangelicals’ view of, 15, 23, 34–35, 37, 78, 93, 97, 138, 198; idols, 150 (see also idol); the past defined as, 43, 173, 175, 180, 185, 217, 246, 268n4; rituals, 34, 173; term discussed, 258n8. See also animists, non-Christians, past
parasitism (social), 53–54
Parry, Jonathan, 153
part-persons, 16, 165, 180, 194. See also khekhe, personhood, words
passportization, 59, 65, 66f, 69, 81, 264n21. See also name,
past, 37, 125; Baptists glorifying, 118; breaking with, 81, 82, 90, 103, 133, 175, 180, 214, 225, 237, 238, 244; ideas and habits from, 4, 6, 7, 79, 184–185, 194–195, 221, 232, 244–245, 247, 281n18; Independents as from, 32, 55; Soviets denouncing, 8, 263n7, 281n19. See also future, “pagan”, rupture, temporality
pastor (minister, presbyter), 12, 213, 261n29, 267n7; Baptist, xiii, 40, 77, 78, 79, 86, 89–90, 93, 100, 108, 109–116, 118, 123, 125, 127, 145, 205, 213, 218, 231, 264n16, 267n6, 277n10; Pentecostal, 34, 139, 143, 148, 154, 208, 242. See also Baptist missionaries, Pentecostal missionaries
pastures, 12, 23–25, 50, 53, 56, 64, 77, 153–154, 161, 181, 197, 228, 241, 257n2, 260n21, 260n25, 265n26, 266n30, 268n5. See also nomads, reindeer
Paul (apostle, saint), 84, 91, 92, 115, 117, 124, 134, 146, 229, 281n16. See also conversion
Paxson, Margaret, 275n24
Pe Mal Khada (Nenets deity), 141–142, 161, 164, 186, 270–271n13, 271n19. See also birth, Khadam Pe, khekhe
Pelkmans, Mathijs, 85
Pentecostal missionaries, 4, 139–161; competing with Baptist missionaries, 5, 6, 139–148; and their organizations, 143, 271n16. See also Baptist missionaries, icon, Pentecostals
Pentecostals, xiv, 34, 104, 131–167, 261n29; in All-Union Council, 267n2; Baptists about, 147; charismatic neo-Pentecostals, 34; church (prayer house), 143; conversion to, 17, 139, 185, 246 (see also conversion); and finding partner, 139; identifying as Christian, 147, 261n30; perceived as “foreign”, 36; and personhood, 33–34, 150, 187; and registration, 36, 104, 112; and speaking, 145, 242 (see also speaking in tongues); and style of worship, 145; thinking about joining Baptists, 139, 144, 147; and women, 146. See also All-Union Council of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, baptism, Baptist missionaries, devil, icon, language, literalism, pastor, Pentecostal missionaries, prayer, registration, singing, tolerance, Vorkuta, words
Perm Territory, 9
persecutions: of minority Christians in Russia, 5, 9, 105, 109, 110, 117–118, 249; of shamans, 51. See also martyrdom, repressions, Unregistered Baptists
personal song (yabye syo), 175, 182–184. See also alcohol, emotion, name, singing
personhood: in conversion, 226, 229, 243, 244; and evangelicals, 14–15, 116, 180, 239; and language, 13, 17, 172–173, 184, 185–186, 193, 194, 195–196, 244; and name, see name; and reindeer, see reindeer; and songs, 183–184, 198. See also conversion, exchange, individualism, words
perspective-taking, 11, 26, 81, 90, 185, 200, 213, 220, 235–241, 243, 249, 281n18. See also conversion, God, God’s-eye view, language, “pagan”, subject-language, subject position
Petrone, Karen, 262n6
Petrozavodsk, 125
Pietz, William, 269n2
pike (fish), 135, 188–189, 275n22
pollution (ritual impurity): avoiding among Christians, 116; Christians regarding idols as, 270n8; in mission encounter confusion over, 230–231; related female things and qualities, 187–188, 226, 230, 271n15 (see also women); and Russians, 130. See also men, nyaro, purification, reindeer
Pomors, 22
Popov, Andrey, 273n8
porti, 187–188, 275n19. See also curses, evil word, gossip, pollution, witchcraft, words
prayer, praying, 3, 14, 34, 77, 79–80, 94f, 123, 127, 174, 203, 210, 216, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234; of baptismal service, 211–213 (see also baptism); centrality of, 200, 216; communal, 79, 98, 124; introductory, 78, 146, 209, 213; missionary’s instructions on, 213–214; Nenets sacrificial, 185–186, 230; and Nenets women, 216; among Pentecostals, 143–144, 148, 150, 154; by plan, 117; of repentance, 11, 181, 184, 204, 241, 243 (see also repentance); for rulers, 117; spontaneous, 88; of thanks, 209. See also Baptist language, forgiveness, God, language, sincerity
predators, 26, 34, 44, 188, 230, 242. See also bears, lutsa, reindeer, wolves
Prokhorov, Konstantin, 264n23, 269n12
Prokof’ev, Aleksey, 113
Prokof’ev, Georgiy, 47, 272n22
Prokof’eva, Yekaterina, 272n22
promise (oath): in Christian rituals, 11, 205, 208, 213, 218–219; in conversion, 6–7, 11, 14, 98, 163, 185, 200, 220–222, 225, 242, 251; God’s, 121, 125, 201, 221, 233; Independents giving to the authorities, 58; among Nenets animists, 270n12, 278n16. See also baptism, conversion, God, Num
Protestantism: conversion to, 10, 223; on idols, 132–133, 137, 164, 244; and individualism, 164, 226 (see also individualism); and language, 12, 243 (see also language); and missionaries, 36–37, 187; and modernity, 81, 83; perception among Baptists, 108; in Russia, 4–5, 104, 112, 134, 257n3, 269n13; on sincerity, 203, 209 (see also sincerity); and theology, 117, 201. See also conversion, Reformation, Russian Orthodoxy
purification: Christians on, 79, 90, 213, 222, 224, 229–231, 279n7 (see also sanctification); as Nenets ritual, 189, 230 (see also nyaro, torabtq, women); of reform movements, 102, 236, 249. See also non-Christians, pollution, shaman
Puritans (of New England), 239
Pushkareva, Yelena, 273n3, 273n7, 274n16
Quakers, 197
quarrels, 88, 142, 189; creating an emotional bond, 180, 190, 227. See also emotion, dead
Rappaport, Roy, 203
Ravna, Zoia Vylka, 260n23
Reformation, 132, 134, 136, 209. See also Protestantism
Registered Baptists, 114–115, 127–128, 129, 268n10. See also All-Union Council of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, Unregistered Baptists
registration, 112–113; of Baptists, 4, 35, 109, 129, 268n6, 269n13; of Baptists and Independents compared, 129; of Pentecostals, 36, 104, 112. See also Pentecostals, Registered Baptists, Unregistered Baptists
reindeer, 24–32, 41, 106, 155, 171, 205, 259n19; alienated from, 28, 41, 246; and being Nenets, 19, 28, 33, 41–43, 70, 98, 100–101, 226, 246, 250, 260n21; and collectivization, 19, 24, 32, 44, 47, 48–49, 50, 56, 58–59, 109; dedicated to gods, 161 (see also myenarui); consuming raw blood of, 34, 35f, 78, 150, 177; enabling independence, 227; as gift, 193, 196, 269n15, 279n5; given on loan, 227, 279n5; human-reindeer relations, 26; losing of, 28, 45, 61, 95, 99, 163–164, 227, 260n21, 275n25; migration of, 25; in missionaries’ rhetoric, 136, 153; personal or private ownership of, xiii, 19, 29, 39, 53, 64, 100; and personhood, 26, 101, 193, 194, 196, 226, 276n26; and practical knowledge, 17, 32, 49, 189, 232, 240–241, 260n23; and predation, 33–34, 142, 186, 189 (see also predators); reindeer luck (ty yab), 29, 140–141; reindeer races, 65, 78, 89; and ritual pollution, 230, 238, 279n8 (see also pollution); sacrifice of, see sacrifice; shaman as, 274n16; and spirits or gods, 155–156, 161, 227, 271n13; stealing of, 89–90, 186; tensions over pastures of, 12, 23–24; toys of, 69; various uses of, 24, 26, 62, 63, 68, 86, 88, 100, 138, 146, 166, 197–198, 200, 264n17, 272n25, 273n8. See also collectivization, disease, epidemic, exchange, heart, men, nomads, pastures, Reindeer Day, tarq pad
repentance, 11, 14, 15, 84, 89, 114, 181, 200, 204, 214, 225, 243; calls for, 242; as readmittance, 281n19. See also forgiveness, prayer, conversion
repetition, 3, 154, 172, 175–176, 242, 273n7; Baptists’ view of, 175, 181; Christian practices of, 80, 205; Nenets participatory, 151, 176–177; shamanic practice of, 273n7. See also language, words
repressions, 5, 21, 32–33, 39, 46, 47, 110, 114, 118, 250, 259n14, 263n9, 267n2. See also Communists, Council of Churches of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, Gulag, men, persecutions, shaman, Stalinist period, Unregistered Baptists
residence permit (propiska), 55, 63, 66, 264n19
responsibility, 131, 180, 191, 195, 245, 264n15; among Christians, 13, 16, 107, 162, 208, 219, 226, 233, 278n12, 280n14; shifting, 165, 166–167. See also intentions, interiority, sincerity, words
Robbins, Joel, 7, 13, 40, 71–72, 102, 119, 244, 278n1
Rogers, Douglas, 9
Rosaldo, Michelle, 195
rupture: in Christians’ and Communists’ ideologies, 125, 281n16; and evangelicals, 82, 88, 102, 225, 246; and modernity, 81. See also past, temporality
Russian. See lutsa
Russian language, 54, 60, 67, 143, 204, 258n10, 282n2; Christians’ usage of, 3, 205, 211; enabling interethnic missionization, 126; poor knowledge of, 3, 19, 63, 87, 238; and singing, 61, 80, 182 (see also singing). See also Nenets language
Russian Orthodoxy: and animosity toward Protestants, 36; Baptists’ view on, 108; and condemnation of idols, 259n15; conversion to, 23 (see also conversion); and icons, 134, 135, 155; and language, 12, 214; among Nenets reindeer herders, 36–37, 43, 45, 48, 95, 102, 133, 135, 139, 164, 202, 218–219, 239, 262n31, 270n5, 281n21; and Old Believers, 9; and proselytization in tsarist period, 5, 22–23, 45, 92, 137, 249, 259nn17–18; and proselytization today among Nenets, 36; and Russian Synodal Bible, 207; and Soviet state, 46, 155. See also devil, icon, name, Num, sacrifice
sacred objects (figures, images), 78, 97, 135, 138, 141–142, 157, 161, 164–165, 186, 188, 204, 259n15, 270n9, 271n19, 271nn13–14, 272n22; Bible as, 269n4; burning of, 3, 34, 37, 45, 131, 139, 142, 143, 154–161, 163, 165, 166, 244, 245, 270n6, 272n25 (see also fire). See also icon, idol, khekhe, non-Christians, sacred site, sacred sledge, syadei, temporality
sacred site (khekhe ya), 45, 123, 137, 141–142, 161, 165, 230, 244, 246, 260n21, 270n8, 271nn13–14, 272nn21–22. See also idol, khekhe, sacred objects, spirits, syadei
sacred sledge (khekhengan), 142, 155, 163, 164, 189, 271n13, 271n15. See also khekhe, sacred objects
sacrifice, 44, 45, 155, 164, 281n15; abandoning, 94; Christian concept of, 3, 153, 216, 221, 222; converts on animist, 93; for the newborn, 33; to Orthodox icons, 23 (see also icon); of reindeer, 8, 34, 141, 186, 271n13, 275n21; Russian missionaries condemning, 34; words used during, 185–186, 271n13, 274n17. See also alcohol, animists, prayer, reindeer, spirits
Sahlins, Marshall, 72
Saint Petersburg (Leningrad), 68, 99, 262n7
Salekhard, 22, 53, 58, 153, 258n7
salvation, 13–14, 45, 68, 81, 93, 96, 154, 174, 178, 185, 199, 201, 222, 223, 224–226, 231, 237, 240, 277n4. See also future
Sámi, 267n7
Samoyeds, in historical sources, 22–23, 259n17; language group of, 258n10; as old name for Nenets, 259n16
sanctification, 114, 224–225, 279n9. See also purification
sanggovo vada. See heavy word
Scandinavia, 267n7
school (boarding school, internat): and Baptist missionaries, 68, 112, 126, 267n11; and effect on Nenets youth, 33, 60, 61–62, 67, 86, 204; forcibly taken to, 59–60; Nenets avoiding, xiii, 4, 43, 53–54, 222; and post-Soviet period, 67, 69, 70f, 81, 91, 99, 247, 265n29; and Soviet reformism, 23, 59, 63, 91, 186, 263n7, 264n19, 265n25; Summer Nomadic School, xiii, 68. See also Independents, Vorkuta, youth
Second World War, 44–45, 49, 151–153
secret police (OGPU, NKVD, KGB), 46, 54, 112, 113, 275n19, 278n12, 280n13
sedentarization, 9, 26, 28, 39, 41, 59, 99–100, 227, 258n11, 260n22. See also city, nomads
self-transformation (self-cultivation, self-formation): among Christians, 4, 8, 10, 13, 38, 81, 84–85, 101, 219, 220, 222–226, 233–234, 249–250, 257n6, 279n2, 279n4, 281n16, 281n19 (see also coherence); among Soviets, 249, 281n19. See also conversion, ethics
Selkup language, 258n10
semiotic ideology, 16, 132, 265n27. See also language ideology
senses: and faith, 14, 134–135, 269n3
Ser Ngo Iri (Nenets deity), 270n13
sermon, 3, 78–79, 107, 125, 127, 135, 143, 202, 223, 229, 231, 277n4; Baptist postbaptismal, 210; on love, 151–154; women not allowed to deliver, 80, 207. See also baptism
Seventh-day Adventists, 112
shaman (tadyebya): acting in the mandalada, 50–51 (see also mandalada); avoiding the state, 263n14; and Christian conversion, 84, 88–93, 101–102, 247; “Christian shaman”, 102; desire to become, 33, 92, 266n3; and drums burned, 270n6; giving khekheq, 271n14 (see also khekhe); and hair, 91; and harmful magic, 187, 191, 275n22; and healing, 270n9, 275n19; and helper during a seance, 273n7; and initiation, 92, 227, 266n3, 266n5; in missionary narratives, 138; predicting future, 50, 261n26, 273n3; and purification rite, 230; and related abilities, 33, 227; repressed as class enemies, 21, 47, 112, 137, 259n13, 263n9 (see also kulaks); and singing, 184–185, 271n13, 273n7, 274n16, 275n23; in Soviet narratives, 263n8; and spirit helpers (tadyebtsoq), 90, 92, 188–189 (see also spirits); travelling to the sky, 272n20. See also conversion, persecutions, shamanism, reindeer, repetition
shamanism, 9; Christians denouncing, 33, 51, 182, 244; different from organized religions, 8, 260n26; disappearing in the 20th century, 23, 92–93, 260n21; and neo-Pentecostals, 34; as neoshamanism, 261n26; persisting in ontological sensibilities, 33, 261n26 (see also ontology). See also shaman
Siberia, 32, 52, 137, 171, 183, 250, 257n2, 258n9, 258n11, 261n28, 267n8, 270n7, 272n2, 279n6
silence, 3, 6, 11, 37, 219, 241, 243, 272n1, 273nn2–4, 274n11, 274n13; biblical command to keep, 146; Christians on, 172–173, 178, 197, 243, 246; inherent in language, 12; and matchmaking, 177–178, 186, 273n8; misread as pensiveness, 181; Nenets being in, 54, 62, 69, 77, 86, 98, 171, 185; as a refusal and self-protection, 3, 174, 176, 178, 179, 214, 242, 244; silencing the other, 180–181, 214. See also birth, language, matchmaking, nonverbal communication, silence act, speech
silence act, 17, 171–182, 193, 242. See also silence, speech act theory
sin, 62, 110, 115–116, 157, 163, 178, 182, 184, 198, 218, 223–226, 232, 237, 279n1, 281n19. See also anger, forgiveness, laughter, taboo
sincerity: and Communists, 61, 264n24; and intention, 240, 241 (see also intention); and interiority, 14, 276n2; and ritual, 208–209; and words, 3, 15–16, 150, 174, 175, 196, 203–204, 221, 243, 278n14. See also interiority, language ideology, prayer, Protestantism
singing: among Christian converts, 14, 68, 80, 121, 146, 194–195, 211f; and Christian hymns, 3, 80, 110, 135, 143, 148, 161, 182, 209, 231; denounced by Christians, 182; Nenets way of (khynots’), 78, 94, 175, 177, 179, 182–185, 198, 204, 232, 233, 238, 244, 274n13; and Pentecostals, 143; and Reindeer Day, 65; Russian way of (yanggerts’), 80, 182 (see also Russian language); and shamans, see shaman. See also alcohol, devil, epic song, God, personal song
sky, 119, 165, 202, 270n13, 272n20. See also Num, shaman
Sneath, David, 8
snowmobiles, 86, 87f, 88, 121, 227, 241
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 174
Song, Eunsub, 258n7
soul, 183, 247; breath-soul (yindq), 164–165, 187, 272n19; Christians’ view of, 90, 107, 108, 117, 123, 129, 138, 178, 181, 184, 199, 200, 215, 219, 222–225, 239, 266n1; of khekhe, 164–165 (see also khekhe); among Nganasan, 274n13; shadow soul (sidyangg), 91, 157, 164–165, 271n19; soul-image (ngytarma), 204; among Yukaghir, 272n19. See also body, interiority
South Korea, 258n7
Sovetskiy (village), 69, 71f, 91, 190, 265n29; Village Council of, 69, 142
Soviet language, 60, 62, 264n23, 276n2. See also Communists, language, words
Sovietization, 21, 39, 44. See also youth
Soyuzpushnina, 55
speaking in tongues (glossolalia), 112, 143, 148, 152, 216, 234, 268n2. See also Pentecostals
speech: avoiding, 272n2; embodied and disembodied, 193–196; evangelicals’, 16, 178, 180–181, 197, 202, 203, 205, 207, 209–210, 213, 219, 243; of the fire, 189, 275n23; and intentions, 195 (see also intention); making public, 58, 65, 88; and silence, 172, 174, 214, 242 (see also silence); speech community, 11, 221; speech event, 37, 148, 200, 208. See also articulacy, Baptist language, fire, God, hate speech, language, love speech, speech act, speech act theory, spirits, tongue, words
speech act, 200, 237, 276n2. See also silence act, speech, speech act theory
speech act theory, 16–17, 18, 60, 194, 199, 216, 276n28. See also speech, speech act
spirits (gods, deities), 4, 26, 29, 34, 45, 50, 79, 92, 93, 123, 133, 137, 140–141, 150, 155, 161, 165, 185, 226–227, 229, 234, 245, 270n13, 271n14, 275nn20–21, 280n10; alcohol offered to, see alcohol; converts disengaging from, 157, 161, 162–165, 166, 238, 244, 246, 247; harm coming from, 91, 98, 155–156, 189, 260n21, 270n10, 281n15; and Russian saints, 45, 159, 257n4; Russians originating from, 43–44; and shamans, 188–189, 242, 266n5; and speech, 172, 185, 188, 196 (see also speech). See also birth, Communists, devil, disease, fire, ikota, khekhe, lutsa, myad pukhutsya, name, Nga, ngylyeka, nomads, reindeer, sacred sites, sacrifice, shaman, syadei, tent, yid yerv
spontaneity, 217; as conceptualized among Christians, 14, 206–207, 217. See also prayer
Ssorin-Chaikov, Nikolai, 124
St. Elijah’s Day, 48; turned into Reindeer Day, 48. See also Reindeer Day
Stalin, Joseph, 23, 44, 51–52, 54, 112, 262n6, 273n6, 281n19
Stalinist period, 4, 19, 39, 44, 46, 124, 250, 267n2, 277–278n12. See also collectivization, Gulag, industrialization, repressions, Stalin
Stammler, Florian, 275n25
Stasch, Rupert, 276n30
state farm (sovkhoz), 8, 19, 47, 56, 62, 166, 258n12, 264–265n25, 264n25; of Baidarata, 58; in Komi, 56; of Usinsk, 56; of Vorkuta, see Vorkuta. See also collectivization, collective farm
Strathern, Marilyn, 239
Stundists (Shtundists), 136
subject-language, 237–238. See also language, perspective-taking
subject position, 200, 238–240. See also perspective-taking
subjectivation, 179–180, 196. See also interpellation, name
Sudan, 26
Sunday: among evangelicals, 11, 77–80, 205, 241; keeping in the past, 97, 281n21
syadei (spirit figure), 45, 137, 165, 270n5. See also devil, idol, khekhe, sacred objects, sacred site, spirits
syaqmei pad (bag of female boots), 187–188, 230, 231. See also evil word, pollution, porti, women
taboo (khebyakha, khevy), 184, 187, 238, 275n20, 281n21. See also sin, women
tacit and explicit, 6, 7, 10, 245. See also silence
Taimyr Peninsula, 260n22, 273n8
Taleyev, Nikolai (Shaman Kolya), 261n26
Tambiah, Stanley, 218
tarq pad, 140, 142. See also reindeer
taxation, 22, 47, 49, 50, 109, 262n4, 262n6, 265n26. See also furs
Taylor, Charles, 146
teltanggoda (shaman helper), 273n7. See also shaman
temporality, 48, 247, 250; and Christians, 37, 83, 105, 119, 121–122, 124, 154, 175, 224; and Nenets sacred objects, 165; and Soviets, 124. See also eschatology, future, past, rupture
tent (chum, mya), 3, 24, 26, 41, 48, 58, 60, 61, 92, 100, 107, 138, 141, 146–148, 149, 163, 171, 175, 176, 177, 185, 188–189, 197, 209, 223; Baptists redecorating, 135, 175; covers of, 26, 32, 48, 65, 136; ritually pure and impure parts of, 36, 187, 231, 271n15, 280n10 (see also men, pollution, women); and spirits, 142, 155, 270n9 (see also spirits)
Tereshchenko, Natal’ya, 274n17, 275n24
Thrift, Nigel, 276n29
Throop, Jason, 281n17
tolerance: Baptist missionary denouncing, 108; God’s, 154; Pentecostals on, 147
Tolkachev, Viktor, 53
tongue: disciplining one’s, 197–200, 213, 217, 219, 232, 233; Nenets sayings of, 276n1. See also Baptist language, language, speech, words
torabtq, 230, 279n8. See also purification
Tozhu, 52
trade, 22, 32, 45, 55, 69, 95, 97, 218, 264n18; as post-Soviet business, 40, 85, 86, 100, 102, 247. See also army, goods
translation, 86, 229–230, 237, 269n16, 270n8; of the Bible, 14, 126, 207, 257–258n7, 275n20 (see also Bible); of hymns, 182; during rituals and services, 3, 78, 208, 213. See also Baptist missionaries
Troeltsch, Ernst, 117
truth-event, 84, 237. See also decision-event
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 46
Tybertya (clan-community), 266n30
Ukraine, 53, 68, 146, 261n29, 268n9, 271n16
Ukrainians, xiii, 11, 126, 134, 146, 178, 257n1, 261n29
United States, 46, 88; evangelicals in, 13, 200, 277n6, 281n20
Unregistered Baptists, 5, 9, 14, 104–130; being repressed, 114, 118–119, 218; as descendants of early church, 105, 107, 124–125; evangelizing ethnic minorities, 125–126; and ideology on separation from the state, 104, 107, 109, 114–119, 127, 129; on marriage, 128; and myth of Holy Russia, 126; official and other names of, 104, 267n1; and registration, 4, 35, 109, 129, 268n6, 269n13; schismatic tendencies of, 109; seen as dissidents, 115; self-identifying as believers, 261n30; and their definition of outsiders, 107; and their journals, 110, 114, 118, 134, 267n11; on worldly rulers, 114. See also Baptist missionaries, Council of Churches of Evangelical Christians-Baptists, martyrdom, persecutions, Registered Baptists, registration, repressions, Vorkuta Baptist church
Ural Nenets (community of Independents), xiv, 4, 19, 24–25, 32, 37, 44, 51, 58, 61, 63, 69–70, 86, 91, 93–94, 100, 141, 164, 166, 186–187, 191, 257n2, 259n17, 260n21, 262n1, 263n14, 265n25, 265n28, 266n30, 269n15. See also Independents, nomads, Ural Mountains, Yamb-To, yedinolichniki
Ural Mountains (Ngarka Pe), 18, 26, 41, 45, 49–50, 51, 56, 123, 137, 139, 141–142, 163, 223, 259n17, 261n28; and its northernmost part (Polar Urals), 21–37, 50, 52, 56, 69, 166, 257n2
Urier (mythic shaman), 272n20
Usa River, 262n4
Usinsk, 56
Ust-Kara, 33, 58, 60, 62, 67; collective farm in, 51, 53, 56, 62, 67, 95, 265n26
Ust-Tsilma, 259n15
Vagramenko, Tatiana, 261n28, 267n10
Vaigach, 22, 122–123; Gulag on, 46, 48; as sacred island, 45, 123, 137, 141, 270n8
Valeri, Valerio, 272n19
Varnek, 123
Vasil’ev, Vladimir, 55–56
Velichko, Fyodor, 271n16
Veniamin (archimandrite), 23, 137, 259n17
Verbov, Grigoriy, 272n22
Vesako (Nenets deity), 137
vevako vada. See evil word
vigilance, 107, 109, 225, 231. See also devil
Vineyard Christians, 224
Vins, Georgiy, 113
Vitebsky, Piers, 229, 250, 273n5, 276n26, 281n18
Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo, 261n27
vodka. See alcohol
Vorkuta, xiii–xiv, 3, 24, 99, 122, 128, 162, 218, 259n15, 263n15, 265n28; and Gulag, 24, 110, 264n17, 268n8 (see also Gulag); history of Baptist church in, 109–114, 117–118, 119, 267–268n2; hymn on, 80, 110; missionaries from, 105, 139, 142, 268n9; Nenets settling in, 61–62, 63, 100; Nenets visiting, 69, 89, 95, 161; Pentecostals in, 143, 208, 268n2, 271n16; prayer house in, 77, 86, 93, 107, 142, 223; school in, 68; state farm of, 63, 141, 265n26, 266n30. See also atheism, city, Vorkuta Baptist church
Vorkuta Baptist church, 109–114, 267n2; as autonomous congregation, 114. See also Baptist missionaries, Unregistered Baptists, Vorkuta
Vorkuta River, 24
Willerslev, Rane, 272n19
Williams, Bernard, 257n5
witchcraft, 44, 186–187, 190, 192, 242, 275n22, 275n25. See also curses, evil word, marriage, porti
witnessing (Christian testimony), 16, 110, 121, 125, 132–133, 178, 199, 200, 213, 215, 218, 222, 237, 241, 243. See also Baptist language
Wittenberg, 133
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 12
wolves, 33–34, 44, 56, 189, 227, 230, 244. See also predators, reindeer
women: and Baptists, 78, 79, 80, 93, 128, 146, 216, 267n6; and labor division, 32, 49; and motivation to convert, 96–97, 267n10; and purity rules, 142, 187, 226, 230, 231, 238, 271n15, 280n10 (see also nyaro, syaqmei pad); and Soviets, 23, 26, 41. See also authority, baptism, Baptist missionaries, men, myad pukhutsya, Num, Pentecostals, pollution, prayer, purification, sermon, taboo
Word of Life, 13
words: abounding among Christians, 3, 13, 148, 171, 197; being cautious with, 4, 276n1, 278n15, 281n19; being fixed in Christian rituals, 205, 207; being justified by, 200; being underdetermined, 160, 166; in conversion, see language; and deeds, 12, 17, 226, 243, 269n15; efficacious through God, 201–202, 218; and fasting, 205; and inner intentions, 14–15, 192, 194, 195, 208–209, 215, 241, 243 (see also intention); “living word”, 135; and ontologies, 16–17, 98, 124, 131, 171, 182, 185, 193–194, 198, 218, 226, 243, 274n17 (see also ontology); among Pentecostals, 148, 276n27; and personhood, see personhood; and representation, 16, 37; Russians’ intrusive, 4, 16, 176–177, 186, 193, 242 (see also evil word); of Soviets, 48, 113, 263n8 (see also Soviet language); and tacit knowledge, 10, 172, 243; taking responsibility for, 13, 16 (see also responsibility); and their binding force, 38, 172, 180. See also Baptist, language, God’s Word, language, language ideology, non-Christians, repetition, speech
wordscapes, 17, 38, 172. See also words
Yabtam Pe (mountain), 142
yabye syo. See personal song
Yamal Khekhe (Nenets deity), 123, 270n13
Yamal Peninsula, 52, 53, 55–56, 118, 123, 141, 165, 260n21, 268n3; etymology of, 122–123
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region, 19, 41, 56, 58, 92, 149, 258n9, 258n11, 261n28, 265n25, 265n28, 266nn29–30; Nenets of, 165, 223, 257n4, 259n17, 267n10, 274n15, 278n14
Yamb-To (community of Nenets Independents), xiii–xiv, 4, 19, 24–25, 32–33, 36, 44, 51, 56–58, 61, 63–69, 77–80, 86, 93, 95, 96, 138, 162, 163, 166, 174, 178, 233, 238, 257n2, 258nn10–11, 264n22, 265nn25–26, 265n28, 268n5, 270n12, 273n7. See also Independents, Ural Nenets
Yaminya (Nenets deity), 270n9
Yarovaya Law, 269n13
Yavtysyi, Prokopi, xiii, xiv, 32
yedinolichniki (lichniki): elsewhere in Siberia, 263n14; in the mandalada, 50; Soviet activists trying to collectivize, 53, 59, 81, 263n8; Soviet category of, 4, 47, 52, 262n6, 264n25. See also collectivization, grey-zone herders, Independents, Ural Nenets, Yamb-To
Yenisei River, 18
Yevladov, Vladimir, 106, 165, 166, 227, 268n3
Yevsyugin, Arkadi, 48–49, 54–55, 237, 262n7
yid yerv (water spirit), 186, 189, 275n22, 281n15. See also pike
Yoshida, Atsushi, 264n25
youth, 228; alienated from tundra life, 28; and Baptists, 9, 99, 112, 113, 118, 126, 247; becoming independent, 227–228; being adaptive to change, 28–29, 39–40, 72, 83, 85, 87–88, 98–101, 173, 223, 245, 246, 247; and Soviet policies, 113, 247; and Sovietization, 60, 61. See also city, conversion, school
Yugor Peninsula, 56
Yugor Strait, 45
Yukaghir, 272n19
Yusharskiy Village Council, 56
Zimbabwe, 135
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