NOTES

1. INTRODUCTION

1. Abu Bakarr Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame of Failing and Failed States in West Africa,” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 25, no. 1 (2012): 71–89; S. N. Sangmpam, “Neither Soft nor Dead: The African State Is Alive and Well,” African Studies Review 36, no. 2 (1993): 73–94.

2. Interview, assistant professor at the University of Liberia, Monrovia, 2008.

3. Bah, Breakdown and Reconstitution: Democracy, the Nation-State, and Ethnicity in Nigeria (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2005); Bah, “Approaches to Nation Building in Post-Colonial Nigeria,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology (renamed Political and Military Sociology: An Annual Review) 32, no. 1 (Summer 2004): 45–60; Rotimi Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2001); Larry Diamond, Class, Ethnicity and Democracy in Nigeria: The Failure of the First Republic (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1988); Matthijs Bogaards, “Ethnic Party Bans and Institutional Engineering in Nigeria,” Democratization 17, no. 4 (2010): 730–749.

4. Adekeye Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Adebajo and Ismail Rashid, eds., West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004); John Kabia, Humanitarian Intervention and Conflict Resolution in West Africa: From ECOMOG to ECOMIL (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009); Amadu Sesay, Charles Ukeje, Osman Gbla, and Olawale Ismail, Post War Regimes and State Reconstruction in Liberia and Sierra Leone (Dakar, SN: Codresia, 2009).

5. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d’Ivoire,” African Affairs 109, no. 437 (2010): 597–615.

6. Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design: Peacebuilding and Democracy in Africa (London: Zed, 2020).

7. Charles Tilly, “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime,” in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

8. Reyko Huang, The Wartime Origins of Democratization: Civil War, Rebel Governance, and Political Regime (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016).

9. Robert Blair, Peacekeeping, Policing, and the Rule of Law after Civil War (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2020).

10. Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

11. William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

12. Bah and Ibrahim Bangura, “Landholding and the Creation of Lumpen Tenants in Freetown: Youth Economic Survival and Patrimonialism in Postwar Sierra Leone,” Critical Sociology (2023).

13. Robert H. Bates, When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late-Century Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

14. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89; Bah, “State Decay and Civil War: A Discourse on Power in Sierra Leone,” Critical Sociology 37, no. 2 (2011): 199–216; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” Oxford Economic Papers 56, no. 4 (2004): 563–595; Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone; Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Jean-Francois Bayart, The Illusion of Cultural Identity (London: Hurst, 2005); Michael Bratton and Nicolas Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).

15. Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa; Van de Walle, “Africa’s Range of Regimes,” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2 (2002): 66–80; Vicky Randall and Lars Svåsand, “Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Africa,” Democratization 9, no. 3 (2002): 30–52; Danielle Resnick and Van de Walle, eds., Democratic Trajectories in Africa: Unravelling the Impact of Foreign Aid (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

16. Ashraf Ghani and Clare Lockhart, Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).

17. Tanja Schümer, New Humanitarianism: Britain and Sierra Leone, 1997–2003 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

18. Peace A. Medie, Global Norms and Local Action: The Campaigns to End Violence against Women in Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020).

19. Suzannah Linton, “Cambodia, East Timor and Sierra Leone: Experiments in International Justice,” Criminal Law Forum 12 (2001): 185–246; Richard Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the Post-apartheid State (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Elizabeth M. Evenson, “Truth and Justice in Sierra Leone: Coordination between Commission and Court,” Columbia Law Review (2004): 730–767; Allison Corey and Sandra F. Joireman, “Retributive Justice: The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda,” African Affairs 103, no. 410 (2004): 73–89; Rosalind Shaw, “Memory Frictions: Localizing the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Sierra Leone,” International Journal of Transitional Justice 1, no. 2 (2007): 183–207; Charles Chernor Jalloh, “Special Court for Sierra Leone: Achieving Justice?,” Michigan Journal of International Law 32, no. 3 (2011): 395–460.

20. Osman Gbla, “Security Sector Reform under International Tutelage in Sierra Leone,” International Peacekeeping 13, no. 1 (2006): 78–93; Adedeji Ebo, “The Challenges and Lessons of Security Sector Reform in Post-conflict Sierra Leone: Analysis,” Conflict, Security & Development 6, no. 4 (2006): 481–501; Edward Sawyer, “Remove or Reform? A Case for (Restructuring) Chiefdom Governance in Post-conflict Sierra Leone,” African Affairs 107, no. 428 (2008): 387–403; Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism: War and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone,” Africa Today 60, no. 1 (2013): 3–26.

21. David M. Anderson and Jacob McKnight, “Kenya at War: Al-Shabaab and Its Enemies in Eastern Africa,” African Affairs 114, no. 454 (2015): 1–27; Caroline Thomas, “Global Governance, Development and Human Security: Exploring the Links,” Third World Quarterly 22, no. 2 (2001): 159–175; Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security (London: Zed, 2001); Schümer, New Humanitarianism; Lisa Denney, “Reducing Poverty with Teargas and Batons: The Security–Development Nexus in Sierra Leone,” African Affairs 110, no. 439 (2011): 275–294; Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

22. Neta Crawford, Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention (Cambridge, UK: University Press Cambridge, 2002).

23. Séverine Autesserre, The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the Failure of International Peacebuilding (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

24. Autesserre, Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

25. Scott Straus, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013); Autesserre, The Trouble with the Congo; Bah, “State Decay and Civil War: A Discourse on Power in Sierra Leone”; Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26; Krijn Peters, War and the Crisis of Youth in Sierra Leone (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Danny Hoffman, “The Civilian Target in Sierra Leone and Liberia: Political Power, Military Strategy, and Humanitarian Intervention,” African Affairs 103, no. 411 (2004): 211–226; Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Stephen Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (New York: New York University Press, 1999).

26. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa.

27. Alfred B. Zack-Williams, “Sierra Leone: The Political Economy of Civil War, 1991–98,” Third World Quarterly 20 (1999): 143–162; Michael Ross, “How Do Natural Resources Influence Civil War? Evidence from Thirteen Cases,” International Organization 58, no. 1 (2004): 35–68; Michael L. Ross, “What Do We Know about Natural Resources and Civil War?,” Journal of Peace Research 41 (2004): 337–356.

28. Alan Bryman, Social Research Methods (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016); Charles C. Ragin and Lisa M. Amoroso, Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge, 2011); Antony Bryant, “The Grounded Theory Method,” in Reviewing Qualitative Research in the Social Sciences, ed. Audrey Trainor and Elizabeth Graue, 120–136 (New York: Routledge, 2013); Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (New Brunswick, NJ: AldineTransaction, 1967).

29. Auguste Comte, Auguste Comte and Positivism: The Essential Writings (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction, 1975); Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader (New York, W. W. Norton, 1978); Max Weber, Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Routledge, 2009); Emile Durkheim, Emile Durkheim: Selected Writings (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972); Bronislaw Malinowski, A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays (UNC Press, 2015).

30. Theda Skocpol and Margaret Somers, “The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, no. 2 (1980): 174.

31. James Mahoney, “Comparative-Historical Methodology,” Annual Review of Sociology 30 (2004): 81–101.

32. Barrington Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, MA: Beacon, 1966); Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Tilly, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006); Immanuel Wallerstein, The Capitalist World-Economy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

33. Mahoney, Colonialism and Postcolonial Development: Spanish America in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Andrew Arato, Constitution Making Under Occupation: The Politics of Imposes Revolution in Iraq (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009); Nic Cheeseman, Democracy in Africa: Successes, Failures, and the Struggle for Political Reform (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa.

34. Crawford, Argument and Change in World Politics; Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict; Mohammed Ayoob, The Third World Security Predicament: State Making, Regional Conflict, and the International System (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995).

35. Ali A. Mazrui, The African Condition: A Political Diagnosis (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018); Gilbert M. Khadiagala, Meddlers or Mediators? African Interveners in Civil Conflicts in Eastern Africa (Leiden, NL: Martinus Nijhoff, 2007).

36. Mahoney, “Comparative-Historical Methodology,” 93.

37. Weber, Max Weber; Durkheim, Emile Durkheim.

38. Ragin and Amoroso, Constructing Social Research, 49.

39. Ragin and Amoroso, Constructing Social Research, 61.

40. Ragin and Amoroso, Constructing Social Research, 71.

41. Mahoney, “Comparative-Historical Methodology,” 93.

42. Skocpol and Somers, “The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” 176

43. Skocpol and Somers, “The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” 178.

44. Skocpol and Somers, “The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” 192.

45. Skocpol and Somers, “The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” 181.

46. Skocpol and Somers, “The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry,” 187.

47. The field data collection in New York and West Africa were conducted by first author Bah with the support of Northern Illinois University, the West African Research Association, and the Council of American Overseas Research Centers (CAORC).

48. Andreas Rauber, Andreas Aschenbrenner, and Oliver Witvoet, “Austrian Online Archive Processing: Analyzing Archives of the World Wide Web,” International Conference on Theory and Practice of Digital Libraries (Berlin: Springer, 2002); Scott L. Miller, “History on the Cheap: Using the Online Archive to Make Historicists out of Undergrads,” Pedagogy 5, no. 1 (2005): 97–101; Christopher Power et al., “Improving Archaeologists’ Online Archive Experiences through User-Centred Design,” Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 10, no. 1 (2017): 1–20.

49. Bill Tally and Lauren B. Goldenberg, “Fostering Historical Thinking with Digitized Primary Sources,” Journal of Research on Technology in Education 38, no. 1 (2005): 3.

50. Chaim Noy, “Sampling Knowledge: The Hermeneutics of Snowball Sampling in Qualitative Research,” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 11, no. 4 (2008): 327–344.

51. The field data collection in New York and West Africa were conducted by first author Bah with the support of Northern Illinois University, the West African Research Association, and CAORC. There was one research assistant in each of the countries. The paid research assistants were recent graduates from local universities working with grassroots organizations dealing with issues of development and security. The research assistants were recommended by colleagues in the case countries. Stipends were directly negotiated with the research assistants. In addition to the stipend, research assistants were reimbursed for research-related expenses, such as transportation, phone calls, and making photocopies. These research assistants did not conduct the interviews or gain access to the interview recordings or transcripts. While the research assistants know the respondents, the interviews did not take place in their direct presence. Their roles were limited to helping with logistical issues in the data-collection process.

52. The original taped interviews were later downloaded from the recording device and saved on university computers that are password protected.

53. Bryman and Bob Burgess, eds., Analyzing Qualitative Data (London, UK: Routledge, 2002); Matthew B. Miles and A. Michael Huberman, Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994); Bryman, Social Research Methods.

54. Ragin and Amoroso, Constructing Social Research; Bryant, “The Grounded Theory Method”; Glaser and Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory.

55. Johnny Saldaña, “Coding and Analysis Strategies,” The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014).

56. Bah, “Ethnic Conflicts and Management Strategies in Bulgaria, Sierra Leone and Nigeria,” Programme on Ethnic and Federal Studies Monograph New Series 3 (Ibadan, NG: John Archers, 2003); Bah, Breakdown and Reconstitution.

57. Daryll Forde and Phyllis Mary Kaberry, West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); John D. Hargreaves, Prelude to the Partition of West Africa (New York: Macmillan, 1963); Katherine E. Reece, West African Kingdoms: Empires of Gold and Trade (Vero Beach, FL: Rourke, 2005); Falola Toyin, The Power of African Cultures (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2008); Toyin, ed., Africa: African History Before 1885 (Durham, NC: Academic Press, 2000); J. F. Ade Ajayi, ed., Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s (Paris: UNESCO and Heinemann International, 1998).

58. Jack Goody, “Feudalism in Africa?,” Journal of African History 4, no. 1 (1963): 1–18; Michael Crowder, West Africa Under Colonial Rule (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1968); Ade Ajayi and Crowder, History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976); Crowder and Obara Ikime, West African Chiefs: Their Changing Status Under Colonial Rule and Independence (New York: Africana Publishing, 1970); Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; Ismael Montana, The Abolition of Slavery in Ottoman Tunisia (Tampa: University Press of Florida, 2013).

59. Sheldon Gellar, Statebuilding and Nation-Building in West Africa (Bloomington: International Development Research Center, Indiana University, 1972); Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; James S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1958); Lewis H. Gann and Peter Duignan, eds., Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975); Achille Mbembe, On the Postcolony (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).

60. J. Ayodele Langley, Pan-Africanism and Nationalism in West Africa, 1900–1945: A Study in Ideology and Social Classes (Gloucestershire, UK: Clarendon, 1973); Coleman, “Nationalism in Tropical Africa,” American Political Science Review 48, no. 2 (1954): 404–426; Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design.

61. Isaac Land and Andrew Schocket, “New Approaches to the Founding of the Sierra Leone Colony, 1786–1808,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 9, no. 3 (2008); Hilary Blood, “History of Sierra Leone,” African Affairs 62, no. 246 (1963): 76; A. B. C. Sibthorpe, The History of Sierra Leone (London: Frank Cass, 1970).

62. Jimmy D. Kandeh, “Politicization of Ethnic Identities in Sierra Leone,” African Studies Review 35, no. 1 (1992): 81–99; Joseph Bangura, “Understanding Sierra Leone in Colonial West Africa: A Synoptic Socio-Political History,” History Compass 7, no. 3 (2009): 583–603.

63. Leo Spitzer, The Creoles of Sierra Leone: Responses to Colonialism, 1870–1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1974); Coleman, “Nationalism in Tropical Africa,” 404–426; Anthony D. Smith, ed., Nationalist Movements (London: Macmillan, 1976).

64. Interview, Solomon Berewa, former vice president of Sierra Leone, Freetown, 2008.

65. G. I. C. Eluwa, “Background to the Emergence of the National Congress of British West Africa,” African Studies Review 14, no. 2 (1971): 205–218.

66. A. Adu Boahen, Africa Under Colonial Domination: 1880–1935 (Paris: UNESCO and Heinemann Educational Books, 1985).

67. Kandeh, “Politicization of Ethnic Identities,” 81–99.

68. Santosh C. Saha, ed., The Politics of Ethnicity and National Identity (New York: Peter Lang, 2007); Bah, “State Decay and Civil War,” 199–216; Kandeh, “Politicization of Ethnic Identities,” 81–99; David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (Oxford: James Currey, 2005).

69. Tony Chafer, The End of Empire in French West Africa: France’s Successful Decolonization? (Gordonsville, VA: Berg, 2002); Timothy C. Weiskel, French Colonial Rule and the Baule Peoples: Resistance and Collaboration, 1889–1911 (Gloucestershire: Clarendon, 1980); Djibril Tamsir Niane and Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century (Oxford: James Currey, 1998); Paul M. Lubeck, The African Bourgeoisie: Capitalist Development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Côte d’Ivoire (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1987); Hargreaves, West Africa: The Former French States (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967); Thomas Hodgkin and Ruth Schachter, French-Speaking West Africa in Transition (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1961); Crowder, “Indirect Rule: French and British Style,” Journal of the International Africa Institute 34, no. 3 (1964): 197–205; Martin A. Klein, Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Virginia McLean Thompson and Richard Adloff, French West Africa (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957); A. S. Kanya-Forstner, The Conquest of Western Sudan: A Study in French Military Imperialism (New York: Cambridge, 1969).

70. Crowder, “Indirect Rule,” 197–205; Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; Conklin, A Mission to Civilize; Crowder, West Africa Under Colonial Rule.

71. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; Kathryn Firmin-Sellers, “Institutions, Context, and Outcomes: Explaining French and British Rule in West Africa,” Comparative Politics (2000): 253–272.

72. Coleman, “Nationalism in Tropical Africa,” 404–426; Chafer, The End of Empire in French West Africa.

73. Jean-François Havard, “Tuer les ‘Pères des Indépendances?’ Comparaison de Deux Générations Politiques Post-Indépendances au Sénégal et en Côte d’Ivoire,” Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée 16, no. 2 (2009): 315–331.

74. Aristide R. Zolberg, One-Party Government in the Côte d’Ivoire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964); Pierre Nandjui, Houphouët-Boigny: l’homme de la France en Afrique (Paris: L‘Harmattan, 1995); Charles F. Andrain, “The Pan-African Movement: The Search for Organization and Community,” Phylon 23, no. 1 (1962): 5–17; James S. Magee, “What Role for ECA? Or Pan-Africanism Revisited,” Journal of Modern African Studies 9, no.1 (2008): 73–89; Jean-Pierre Dozon, “La Côte d’Ivoire entre démocratie, nationalisme et ethnonationalisme,” Politique Africaine 78, no. 2 (2000): 45–62; Kevin Shillington, ed., Encyclopedia of African History Volume 1: A-G (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2005).

75. Nandjui, Houphouët-Boigny; interview, a professor of anthropology, University of Cocody, Abidjan, 2008.

76. Ruth Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who’: Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis,” African Studies Review 49, no. 2 (2006): 9–44; Dozon, “La Côte d’Ivoire,” 45–62; Dwayne Woods, “The Tragedy of the Cocoa Pod: Rent-Seeking, Land and Ethnic Conflict in Côte d’Ivoire,” Journal of Modern African Studies 41, no. 4 (2003): 641–655; Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

77. Thomas J. Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Cotê d’Ivoire 1880–1995 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Lubeck, The African Bourgeoisie; I. William Zartman and Christopher L. Delgado, eds., The Political Economy of Côte d’Ivoire (New York: Praeger, 1984); Richard C. Crook, “Patrimonialism, Administrative Effectiveness and Economic Development in Côte d’Ivoire,” African Affairs 88, no. 351 (1989): 205–228; John Rapley, Ivoirien Capitalism: African Entrepreneurs in Côte d’Ivoire (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 1993); Antony G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (New York: Longman, 1973); Crowder, West Africa Under Colonial Rule.

78. Zelijko Bogetic, John Noer, and Carlos Espina, “Côte d’Ivoire: From Success to Failure: A Story of Growth, Specialization, and the Terms of Trade,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4414, 2007; Robert M. Hecht, “The Ivory Coast Economic ‘Miracle’: What Benefits for Peasant Farmers?,” Journal of Modern African Studies 21, no.1 (2008): 25–53; Bastiaan A. Den Tuinder, Côte d’Ivoire, the Challenge of Success: Report of a Mission Sent to the Ivory Coast by the World Bank (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Richard Sandbrook, “The State and Economic Stagnation in Tropical Africa,” World Development 14, no. 3 (1986): 319–332.

79. Interview, an adviser to the president, Office of the President, Abidjan, 2008.

80. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615; Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44.

81. Interview, a professor of anthropology, University of Cocody, Abidjan, 2008.

82. George Klay Kieh, The First Liberian Civil War: the Crises of Underdevelopment (New York: Peter Lang, 2008).

83. “Maps of Liberia, 1830–1870,” Library of Congress, accessed October 28, 2023, https://www.loc.gov/collections/maps-of-liberia-1830-to-1870/about-this-collection/; “U.S. Relations with Liberia,” US Department of State, August 2, 2019, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-liberia/; Harry Johnston, Liberia Vol. 1 (London: Hutchinson, 1906); Edwin Wiley, Albert Bushnell Hart, and Irving Everett Rines, eds., Lectures on the Growth and Development of the United State, Vol. 6 (Washington, DC: American Educational Alliance, 1915); John Hanson Thomas McPherson, History of Liberia (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2004); Abayomi Wilfrid Karnga, History of Liberia (Liverpool: D. H. Tyte, 1926).

84. Svend E. Holsoe, “A Study of the Relations Between Settlers and Indigenous Peoples in Western Liberia, 1821–1847,” African Historical Studies 4, no. 2 (1971): 331–362; George William Brown, The Economic History of Liberia (Gainesville, FL: Associated Publishers, 1941); David Brown, “On the Category ‘Civilised’ in Liberia and Elsewhere,” Journal of Modern African Studies 20, no. 2 (1982): 287–303; Amos Sawyer, “Proprietary Authority and Local Administration in Liberia,” in The Failure of the Centralized State: Institiutions and Self-Governance in Africa, ed. James Wunsch and Dele Oluwu (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990); Mamdani, Citizen and Subject.

85. D. Elwood Dunn, Liberia and the United States During the Cold War: Limits of Reciprocity (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2009); Robert A. Smith, The American Foreign Policy in Liberia: 1822–1971 (Granite Bay, CA: Providence, 1972); Wayne Chatfield Taylor, Firestone Operations in Liberia (Washington, DC: National Planning Association, 1956); Alusine Jalloh and Toyin Falola, The United States and West Africa: Interactions and Relations (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2008); Dew Tuan-Wleh Mayson and Sawyer, “Labour in Liberia,” Review of African Political Economy 14 (1979): 3–15.

86. Interview, member of TRC of Liberia and the Inter Religious Council, Monrovia, June 2008.

87. Merran Fraenkel, Tribe and Class in Monrovia (London: Oxford University Press, 1964); David Levinson, Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook (Phoenix: Oryx, 1998).

88. Interview, official at the Liberian Mission to the UN, New York, 2005.

89. Bates, When Things Fell Apart.

90. Interview, civil society activist and member of the Network of Education and Peace Caretakers, Abidjan, 2008.

91. Interview, lecturer, Abidjan, 2008.

92. Interview, assistant professor at the University of Liberia, Monrovia, 2008.

93. Interview, senior official at the Sierra Leonean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Freetown, 2008.

94. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Adebajo and Rashid, West Africa’s Security Challenges; Ademola Adeleke, “The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa: The ECOWAS Operation in Liberia,” Journal of Modern African Studies 33, no. 4 (1995): 569–593; Kabia, Humanitarian Intervention.

95. Sesay et al., Post-War Regimes and State Reconstruction.

96. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

97. Gianfranco Poggi, The State: Its Nature, Development, and Prospects (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990); Tilly, “Reflections on the History of European State-Making,” in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, ed. Gabriel Ardant and Tilly (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Weber, Max Weber; Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992); Wallerstein, Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974); Michael I. Handel, Weak States in the International System (London: Frank Cass, 1990); Robert Owen Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989); Christopher S. Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas, and Francisco O. Ramirez, “World Society and the Nation-State,” American Journal of Sociology 103, no. 1 (1997): 144–181; Joseph R. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970); Ghani and Lockhart, Fixing Failed States; Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In.

98. Strayer, Medieval Origins of the Modern State; Eiko Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard College, 1995); Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy; Hendrik Spruyt, “The End of the Empire and the Extension of the Westphalian System: The Normative Basis of the Modern State Order,” International Studies Review 2, no. 2 (2000): 65–92; Crawford Young, “The End of the Post-Colonial State in Africa? Reflections on Changing African Political Dynamics,” African Affairs 103, no. 410 (2004): 23–49; Robin M. Grier, “Colonial Legacies and Economic Growth,” Public Choice 98 (1999): 317–335; Kwame Nkrumah, Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism (London: Thomas Nelson, 1965); Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1995).

99. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions; Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai; Tilly and Ardant, The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).

100. Even Ethiopia and Liberia were affected by colonialism. Their boundaries were practically drawn by Western colonial powers.

101. Weber, Max Weber.

102. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Bah, “Changing World Order and the Future of Democracy in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Proteus, A Journal of Ideas 21, no. 1 (2004): 3–12; Huang, The Wartime Origins of Democratization; Blair, Peacekeeping, Policing, and the Rule of Law after Civil War.

103. Samuel E. Finer, “The One-Party Regimes in Africa: Reconsiderations,” Government and Opposition 2, no. 4 (1967): 491–509; Zolberg, “The Structure of Political Conflict in the New States of Tropical Africa,” American Political Science Review 62, no.1 (1968): 70–87; Zolberg, “The Military Decade in Africa,” World Politics 25, no. 2 (1973): 309–321; Jackson and Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa; Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design.

104. Bratton and Van de Walle, “Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa,” World Politics 46, no. 4 (1994): 453–489; Bratton and Robert B. Mattes, “Support for Democracy in Africa: Intrinsic or Instrumental?,” British Journal of Political Science 31, no. 3 (2001): 447–474; Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa; Samuel Decalo, “The Process, Prospects, and Constraints of Democratization in Africa,” African Affairs 91, no. 362 (1992): 7–35.

105. Thomas Humphrey Marshall, Class, Citizenship, and Social Development (New York: Greenwood, 1964).

106. Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood; Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991).

107. Smith, Nationalism and Modernism: A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism (London: Routledge, 1998); Eric Hobsbawm, On History (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997); Johann G. Herder, Reflections on the Philosophy of the History of Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968); Florian Znaniecki, Modern Nationalities: A Sociological Study (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1952); Bayart, The Illusion of Cultural Identity.

108. Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; Peter Geschiere, The Perils of Belonging: Autochthony, Citizenship, and Exclusion in Africa and Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Wale Adebanwi, “Contesting Exclusion: The Dilemmas of Citizenship in Nigeria,” African Anthropologist 12, no. 1 (2005): 11–45.

109. Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44; Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

110. Juan J. Linz, “Statebuilding and Nation Building,” European Review 1, no. 4 (1993): 355–369; Jean-Marie Guéhenno, The End of the Nation-State, trans. Victoria Elliott (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).

111. Paris Yeros, ed., Ethnicity and Nationalism in Africa: Constructivist Reflections and Contemporary Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1999).

112. Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design.

113. Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy; Bah, “State Decay and Civil War,” 199–216.

114. Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44; Dozon, “La Côte d’Ivoire,” 45–62.

115. Barry Buzan, “From International System to International Society: Structural Realism and Regime Theory Meet the English School,” International Organization 47, no. 3 (1993): 327–352; Ayoob, The Third World Security Predicament; Thomas M. Franck, “Legitimacy in the International System,” American Journal of International Law 82, no. 4 (1988): 705–759; Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977); Alan James, Sovereign Statehood: The Basis of International Society (East Melbourne, AU: Allen and Unwin, 1986); John Gerard Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations,” International Organization 47, no.1 (1993): 139–174; Kenneth N. Waltz, “The Emerging Structure of International Politics,” International Security 18, no. 2 (1993): 44–79.

116. Handel, Weak States in the International System; Wallerstein, World Systems Analysis: An Introduction (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004); Bull, The Anarchical Society; Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); Waltz, “The Emerging Structure of International Politics,” 44–79; Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars; Bah, “People-Centered Liberalism: An Alternative Approach to International Statebuilding in Sierra Leone and Liberia,” Critical Sociology 43, no. 7–8 (2017): 989–1007.

117. Ronnie D. Lipschutz, “Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society,” Millenium: Journal of International Studies 21 (1992): 389–420; Ulrich Beck, What Is Globalization?, trans. P. Camiller (Malden: Polity, 2000); Hugh Seton-Watson, Nations and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Nations and the Politics of Nationalism (New York: Routledge, 2019).

118. Wallerstein, World Systems Analysis.

119. Wallerstein, “The Rise and Future Demise of the World Capitalist System: Concepts for Comparative Analysis,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 16, no. 4 (1974): 387–415; Wallerstein, Historical Capitalism: with Capitalist Civilization (London: Verso Trade, 2011).

120. Clapham, Africa and the International System; Andrew Fenton Cooper and Agata Antkiewicz, eds., Emerging Powers in Global Governance: Lessons From the Heiligendamm Process (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2008).

121. Interview, senior diplomat, Sierra Leone Mission to the UN, New York, 2005.

122. Robert Owen Keohane, ed., Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World (London: Routledge, 2002); Bah, ed., International Security and Peacebuilding: Africa, the Middle East, and Europe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017).

123. Roberta Cohen and Francis Mading Deng, Masses in Flight: The Global Crisis of Internal Displacement (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1998); Paul F. Diehl, Daniel Druckman, and James Wall, “International Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution: A Taxonomic Analysis with Implications,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 42, no. 1 (1998): 33–55.

124. Kofi A. Annan, “Two Concepts of Sovereignty,” The Economist 18, no. 9 (1999); Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now (New York: United Nations Publications, 2003); S. Neil MacFarlane and Yuen Foong-Khong, Human Security and the UN: A Critical History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).

125. Clifford Geertz, Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa (NewYork: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963); Joane Nagel and Susan Olzak, “Ethnic Mobilization in New and Old States: An Extension of the Competition Model,” Social Problems 30, no. 2 (1982): 127–143.

126. Thomas Blom Hansen and Finn Stepputat, eds., States of Imagination: Ethnographic Explorations of the Postcolonial State (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001); John S. Saul, “The State in Post-Colonial Societies: Tanzania,” Socialist Register 11 (1974): 349–371; Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; J. F. Médard, “Patrimonialism, Neo-Patrimonialism, and the Study of the Postcoloniaal State in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in Political Corruption: Concepts and Contexts, ed. Arnold J. Heidenheimer and Michael Johnston (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2009); Collin Leys, “The ‘Overdeveloped’ Post Colonial State: A Re-evaluation,” Review of African Political Economy 3, no. 5 (1976): 39–48; Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Politics of Upheaval (New York: University of Cambridge, 1994); Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, Nation and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

127. Dirk Hoerder, Christiane Harzig, and Adrian Shubert, The Historical Practice of Diversity: Transcultural Interactions from the Early Modern Mediterranean to the Postcolonial World (New York: Berghahn, 2003); Ewin N. Wilmsen and Patrick McAllister, The Politics of Difference: Ethnic Premises in a World of Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Jan Nederveen Pieterse, “Deconstructing/Reconstructing Ethnicity,” Nations and Nationalism 3, no. 3 (1997): 365–395; Gerard Delanty and Krishan Kumar, The SAGE Handbook of Nations and Nationalism (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006); Michael A. Burayidi, Multiculturalism in a Cross-National Perspective (Lanham, MD: University of America Press, 1997); Rainer Forst, “The Basic Right to Justification: Towards a Constructivist Concept of Human Rights,” Constellations: An International Journal of Critical and Democratic Theory 6, no. 1 (1999): 35–60.

128. Don Cupitt, After God: The Future of Religion (New York: Basic Books, 1997); David Bennett, Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity (New York: Routledge, 1998); Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Anderson, Imagined Communities; Tilly, “Reflections on the History of European State-Making”; Ian S. Lustick, Dan Miodownik, and Roy J. Eidelson, “Secessionism in Multicultural States: Does Sharing Power Prevent or Encourage It?,” American Political Science Review 98, no. 2 (2004): 209–229; Taylor, Multiculturalism.

129. Zachary Elkins and John Sides, “Can Institutions Build Unity in Multiethnic States?,” American Political Science Review 101, no. 4 (2007): 693–708; Feliks Gross, Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution (Oxford: Greenwood, 1999); Uri Ra’anan, “The Nation-State Fallacy,” in Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies, ed. Joseph V. Montville (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990).

130. “World Economic and Social Survey 2010: Retooling Global Development 2010,” United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2010.

131. “World Bank Country and Lending Groups: Country Classification,” World Bank, accessed October 30, 2023, http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications?print&book_recurse.

132. Jeni Klugman, Human Development Report 2009: Overcoming Barriers—Human Mobility and Development, United Nations Development Programme, 2009.

133. Seymour Martin Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Review 53, no. 1 (1959): 69–105; Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation.

134. Collier and Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” 563–595; Robert I. Rotberg, “The Failure and Collapse of Nation-States: Breakdown, Prevention, and Repair,” in When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, ed. Rotberg (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); I. William Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Jean-Germain Gros, “Towards a Taxonomy of Failed States in the New World Order: Decaying Somalia, Liberia, Rwanda and Haiti,” Third World Quarterly 17, no. 3 (1996): 455–471; Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

135. Weak states can be found in both democratic and nondemocratic countries. In democratic nations, weak states can result from excessive institutionalized restraints that hamper the ability of the government to achieve policy goals or from conditions of oppressive rule that lack legitimacy. See Michael M. Atkinson and William D. Coleman, “Strong States and Weak States: Sectoral Policy Networks in Advanced Capitalist Economies,” British Journal of Political Science 19, no. 1 (1989): 47–67; Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). However, weak democratic states are fundamentally different from weak nondemocratic states, which are the subject of this study.

136. Rotberg, “Failed States, Collapsed States, Weak States: Causes and Indicators,” in State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror, ed. Rotberg (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2003), 4.

137. Gros, “Towards a Taxonomy of Failed States,” 455–471.

138. Zartman, Collapsed States.

139. Rotberg, State Failure and State Weakness, 9.

140. Stephen Holmes, “Constitutionalism, Democracy, and State Decay,” in Deliberative Democracy and Human Rights, ed. Harold Hongju Koh and Ronald C. Slye (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999); Bah, “State Decay and Civil War”; Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

141. Jackson and Rosberg, “Why Africa’s Weak States Persist: The Empirical and the Juridical in Statehood,” World Politics 35, no.1 (1982): 1–24; Zartman, Collapsed States; Rotberg, “Failed States, Collapsed States, Weak States.”

142. The five categories are critical, in danger, borderline, stable, and most stable.

143. Erwin van Veen. “Global Developments in State Failure. A Brief Analysis of the Failed States 2005 – 2010.” The Hague, Holland: Netherlands Institute of International Relation, March 2011. https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/2016-02/20110304_cru_publicatie_evanveen.pdf (accessed 12/29/2023).

144. Rotberg, State Failure and State Weakness, 10–13.

145. Rotberg, State Failure and State Weakness, 16–17.

146. Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).

147. Francis Fukuyama, “The Imperative of Statebuilding,” Journal of Democracy 15, no. 2 (2004): 17–31.

148. Arnold Rivkin, Nation-Building in Africa: Problems and Prospects (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1969).

149. Ghani and Lockhart, Fixing Failed States.

150. Interview, policy specialist, UNDP, Monrovia, June 3, 2008.

151. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1950); Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy,” 69–105.

152. The goals are to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development. See The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2010, United Nations, 2010.

153. Connor Walker, “National-Building or Nation-Destroying?,” World Politics 24, no. 3 (1972): 319–355; Rivkin, Nation-Building in Africa; Ade Ajayi, “The Place of African History and Culture in the Process of Nation-Building in Africa South of the Sahara,” Journal of Negro Education 30, no. 3 (1961): 206–213; Dominic Richard David Thomas, Nation-Building, Propaganda, and Literature in Francophone Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002); Gellar, Statebuilding and Nation-Building; Christophe Bonneuil, “Development as Experiment: Science and Statebuilding in Late Colonial and Postcolonial Africa, 1930–1970,” Osiris 15, no. 1 (2000): 258–281.

154. See Samuel Obeng, Selected Speeches of Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana: Afram, 1997); Nelson Obeng, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela (Boston: Little Brown, 1994); Julius Nyerere, Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968).

155. Schachter, “Single-Party Systems in West Africa,” American Political Science Review 55, no. 2 (1961): 294–307; Kofi Abrefa Busia, Africa in Search of Democracy (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 1967); Zolberg, One-Party Government in the Ivory Coast; Zolberg, “The Structure of Political Conflict,” 70–87; Anton Bebler, ed., Military Rule in Africa: Dahomey, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Mali (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 1973); Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design.

156. Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa; John A. Wiseman, The New Struggle for Democracy in Africa (Aldershot: Avebury, 1996); Bah, “Changing the World Order,” 3–12.

157. Bratton and Mattes, “Support for Democracy in Africa,” 447–474.

158. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615; Collier and Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” 563–595; Håvard Hegre, “Toward a Democratic Civil Peace? Democracy, Political Change, and Civil War, 1816–1992,” American Political Science Review 95, no.1 (2002): 33–48; Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa; Mary H. Moran, Liberia: The Violence of Democracy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).

159. Richard Caplan contrasts third-party state building from indigenous state building; see Caplan, “International Authority and Statebuilding: The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina,” Global Governance 10 (2004): 53–65. See also Andy Aitchison, Making the Transition: International Intervention, Statebuilding and Criminal Justice Reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Series on Traditional Justice (Cambridge, UK: Intersentia, 2011); Marina Ottaway, “Rebuilding State Institutions in Collapsed States,” Development and Change 33, no. 5 (2002): 1001–1023; Simon Chesterman, You, the People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration, and Statebuilding (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Joanna Macrae, ed., “The New Humanitarianisms: A Review of Trends in Global Humanitarian Action,” Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute 11 (2002); “The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty,” International Development Research Centre, 2001.

160. Adam Roberts, “The Road to Hell: a Critique of Humanitarian Intervention,” Harvard International Review 16, no.1 (1993): 10–14; Stanley Hoffmann, Robert C. Johansen, James T. Sterba, and Raimo Vayrynen, The Ethics and Politics of Humanitarian Intervention (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996); “The Responsibility to Protect”; Terry Nardin, “The Moral Basis of Humanitarian Intervention,” Ethics and International Affairs 16, no. 1 (2002): 57–70; Thomas George Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention: Ideas in Action (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2007); Bah, International Security and Peacebuilding; Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26; Bah, “Civil Non-State Actors in Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding in West Africa,” 313–336.

161. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, “Sociology of Humanitarian Intervention: Bosnia, Rwanda and Somalia Compared,” International Political Science Review 18, no. 1 (1997): 71–93; “The Responsibility to Protect”; Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention; Cohen and Deng, Masses in Flight.

162. Pratap Bhanu Mehta, “From State Sovereignty to Human Security (via Institutions?),” Humanitarian Intervention 47 (2006): 257–285; Hoffmann et al., The Ethics and Politics of Humanitarian Intervention; Ayoob, “Humanitarian Intervention and International Society,” Global Governance 7, no. 3 (2001): 225–230; Ayoob, “Third World Perspective on Humanitarian Intervention and International Administration,” Global Governance 10 (2004): 99–118; Roberts, “The Road to Hell,” 10–14; “Declaration of the Group of 77 South Summit held in Havana from 10 to 14 April 2000,” Non-Aligned Movement, 2000, https://www.g77.org/summit/Declaration_G77Summit.htm; ; Bah, International Security and Peacebuilding.

163. Annan, “Two Concepts of Sovereignty”; Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now; MacFarlane and Foong-Khong, Human Security and the UN; Boutros Boutros-Ghali, “An Agenda for Peace Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping,” International Relations 11, no. 3 (1992).

164. Macrae, “The New Humanitarianisms”; Michael Barnett, Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002); Tim Allen and David Styan, “A Right to Interfere? Bernard Kouchner and the New Humanitarianism,” Journal for International Development 12, no. 6 (2000): 825–842.

165. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

166. “The Responsibility to Protect,” 39.

167. Macrae, “The New Humanitarianisms.”

168. Caplan, “International Authority and State Building,” 53–65.

169. Jens Meierhenrich, “Forming States After Failure,” in When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, ed. Rotberg (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); Ottaway, “Rebuilding State Institutions in Collapsed States,” 1001–1023; Jennifer Milliken, State Failure, Collapse and Reconstruction (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003); Shahar Hameiri, “Capacity and its Fallacies: International Statebuilding as State Transformation,” Millenium: Journal of International Studies 38, no. 1 (2009): 55–81; Kumar, ed., Rebuilding Societies After Civil War: Critical Roles for International Assistance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1997).

170. Fukuyama, Statebuilding: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004); Fukuyama, “The Imperative of Statebuilding”; Ghani and Lockhart, Fixing Failed States.

171. Ray Salvatore Jennings, “The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq,” Peaceworks 49, United States Institute of Peace (April 2003); James F. Dobbins et al., America’s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2003); Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

172. Sesay et al., Post-War Regimes and State Reconstruction; Norrie MacQueen, United Nations Peacekeeping in Africa Since 1960 (London: Longman, 2002); Kabia, Humanitarian Intervention; Pieterse, “Sociology of Humanitarian Intervention,” 71–93; Barnett, Eyewitness to a Genocide; Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Adebajo and Rashid, West Africa’s Security Challenges; Adeleke, “The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping,” 569–593; Funmi Olonisakin, Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone: The Story of UNAMSIL (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2008).

173. Interview, a senior diplomat, Sierra Leone Mission to the UN, 2005; interview, diplomat, UK Mission to the UN, 2005.

174. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615; Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2010 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2010).

175. Interview, diplomat, EU Commission Delegation to Côte d’Ivoire, 2008.

176. Bah, Breakdown and Reconstitution; Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

177. Meierhenrich, “Forming States After Failure.”

178. Bratton, “Second Elections in Africa,” Journal of Democracy 9, no. 3 (1998): 51–66; Wiseman, The New Struggle for Democracy in Africa; Collier and Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” 563–595; Clapham, ed., African Guerrillas (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: the Political Basis of Agricultural Policies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution.

179. Bah, Breakdown and Reconstitution; Clapham, Private Patronage and Public Power: Political Clientelism in the Modern State (London: Pinter, 1982); Leonardo R. Arriola, “Patronage and Political Stability in Africa,” Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 10 (2009): 1339–1362; Reno, “African Weak States and Commercial Alliances,” African Affairs 96, no. 383 (1997): 165–185; Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone; Ebenezer Obadare and Wale Adebanwi, eds., Governance and The Crisis of Rule in Africa: Leadership in Transformation (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2016); Sangmpam, “Neither Soft nor Dead,” 73–94.

180. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject; Diamond, “Class Formation in the Swollen African State,” Journal of Modern African Studies 25, no. 4 (1987): 567–596; Richard A. Joseph, “Class, State, and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria,” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 21, no. 3 (1983): 21–38.

181. Kurt Mills and Richard Norton, “Refugees and Security in the Great Lakes Region of Africa,” Civil Wars 5, no. 1 (2002): 1–26; Patricia Daley, “Population Displacement and the Humanitarian Aid Regime: The Experience of Refugees in East Africa,” in Mobile Africa: Changing Patterns of Movement in Africa and Beyond, ed. Mirjam de Bruijn, Rijk Adrianus van Dijk, and Dick Foeken (Leiden, NL: Brill, 2001); Jean-Paul Azam and Hoeffler, “Violence against Civilians in Civil Wars: Looting or Terror?,” Journal of Peace Research 39, no. 4 (2002): 461–485; Taisier M. Ali and Robert O. Matthews, Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution (Québec: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1999); Kumar, Rebuilding Societies After Civil War; Assefaw Bariagaber, Conflict and the Refugee Experience: Flight, Exile, and Repatriation in the Horn of Africa (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006); E. Elbadawi and N. Sambanis, “Why Are There So Many Civil Wars in Africa? Understanding and Preventing Violent Conflict,” Journal of African Economies 9, no. 3 (2000): 244–269.

182. Kumar, Rebuilding Societies After Civil War; Marrack Goulding, “The United Nations and Conflict in Africa Since the Cold War,” African Affairs 98, no. 391 (1999): 155–166; Andreas Mehler, “Peace and Power Sharing in Africa: A Not so Obvious Relationship,” African Affairs 108, no. 432 (2009): 453–473.

183. Macharia Munene, J. D. Olewe Nyunya, and Korwa Gombe Adar, The United States and Africa: From Independence to the End of the Cold War (Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, 1995); John Willis Harbeson and Donald S. Rothchild, eds., Africa in World Politics: Post-Cold War Challenges (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995); Domingos Jardo Muekalia, “Africa and China’s Strategic Partnership”, African Security Review 3, no. 1 (2004): 5–11; Elizabeth Asiedu, “Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: The Role of Natural Resources, Market Size, Government Policy, Institutions and Political Instability,” World Economy 29, no. 1 (2006): 63–77; Nancy Birdsall, Stijn Claessens, and Ishac Diwan, “Policy Selectivity Forgone: Debt and Donor Behavior in Africa,” World Bank Economic Review 17, no. 3 (2003): 409–435; Bade Onimode, ed., The IMF, the World Bank and the African Debt: The Social and Political Perspectives (London: Zed, 1989).

184. Adebayo Oyebade and Abiodun Alao, Africa after the Cold War: The Changing Perspectives on Security (Trenton, NJ: African World Press, 1998); William Hale and Eberard Kienle, eds., After the Cold War: Security and Democracy in Africa and Asia (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998).

185. Fantu Cheru, The Silent Revolution in Africa: Debt, Development and Democracy (London: Zed, 1989).

186. Bah and Nikolas Emmanuel, “Migration Cooperation between Africa and Europe: Understanding the Role of International Incentives,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies, September 15, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.735.

2. STATE DECAY AND CIVIL WAR

1. TRC of Sierra Leone, Witness to Truth: Report of the Sierra Leone Truth & Reconciliation Commission, vol. 1 (2004), 2, accessed November 3, 2023, https://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-the-final-report.

2. For report by the TRC of Liberia, see https://www.trcofliberia.org/reports/final-report.html.

3. TRC, Witness to Truth, 2, app. 1; Abu Bakarr Bah, “Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d’Ivoire,” African Affairs 109, no. 437 (2010): 597–615; Bah, “State Decay and Civil War: A Discourse on Power in Sierra Leone,” Critical Sociology 37, no. 2 (2011): 199–216; Adekeye Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002); John Hirsch, Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001); Paul Richards, “To Fight or to Farm? Agrarian Dimensions of the Mano River Conflicts (Liberia and Sierra Leone),” African Affairs 104, no. 417 (2005): 571–590.

4. Bah, “State Decay and Civil War,” 199–216; Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame of Failing and Failed States in West Africa,” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 25, no. 1 (2012): 71–89.

5. Richard Sandbrook, “The State and Economic Stagnation in Tropical Africa,” World Development 14, no. 3 (1986): 319–332; Donal B. Cruise O’Brien, “A Lost Generation? Youth Identity and State Decay in West Africa,” in Postcolonial Identities in Africa, ed. Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (London: Zed, 1996); William Reno, “Reinvention of an African Patrimonial State: Charles Taylor’s Liberia,” Third World Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1995): 109–120; Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

6. Christopher Clapham, “The Global-Local Politics of State Decay,” in When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, ed. Robert Rotberg (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).

7. Stephen Holmes, “Constitutionalism, Democracy, and State Decay,” in Deliberative Democracy and Human Rights, ed. Harold Hongju Koh and Ronald C. Slye (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).

8. Abdel-Fatau Musah, “A Country Under Siege: State Decay and Corporate Military Intervention in Sierra Leone,” in Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma, ed. Abdel-Fatau Musah and J. Kayode-Fayemi (Sterling, VA: Pluto, 2000).

9. Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People’s History (UK: Zed, 2002).

10. Gary King, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).

11. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

12. Interview, defense counsel, Special Court for Sierra Leone, Freetown, 2008.

13. Liberia, the Declaration of Independence, https://afrikadu.cois.it/?p=1417&lang=en. #.

14. Arthur J. Klinghoffer, Soviet Perspectives on African Socialism (Rutherford, NJ: Dickinson University Press, 1969); Oye Ogunbadejo, “Soviet Policies in Africa,” African Affairs 17, no. 316 (New York: 1980): 239–244; Elliott P. Skinner, Beyond Constructive Engagement: United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa (Saint Paul: Paragon House, 1986).

15. This movement continued as part of the struggle against white settler rule in Southern Africa.

16. Frantz Fanon, Toward the African Revolution: Political Essays (New York: New Grove, 1988).

17. Boubacar N’Diaye, “The Military in the Politics of West Africa,” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 28 (Winter 2000), 187–190; Pierre Nandjui, Houphouët-Boigny: l’homme de la France en Afrique (Paris: L‘Harmattan, 1995); Jennifer A. Widner, “Two Leadership Styles and Patterns of Political Liberalization,” African Studies Review 37, no. 1 (1994): 151–174.

18. Interview, diplomat, Liberian Mission to the UN, New York, 2005.

19. Alusine Jalloh and Toyin Falola, The United States and West Africa: Interactions and Relations (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2008).

20. See Article 1, section two; Article II, and Article III, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b6030.html.

21. “Sovereignty belongs to the people. No section of the people nor any individual can take the exercise of it.”

22. Bankole Thompson, The Constitutional History and Law of Sierra Leone (1961–1995) (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1997).

23. Wayne Chatfield Taylor, Firestone Operations in Liberia (Washington, DC: National Planning Association, 1956); Stephen Ellis, “Liberia 1989–1994: A Study of Ethnic and Spiritual Violence,” African Affairs 94, no. 375 (1995): 165–197; Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (New York: New York University Press, 1999); Earl Conteh-Morgan and Shireen Kadivar, “Ethnopolitical Violence in the Liberian Civil War,” Journal of Conflict Studies 15, no 1 (1995): 30–44.

24. Bah, “State Decay and Civil War,” 199–216; Humphrey J. Fisher, “Elections and Coups in Sierra Leone, 1967,” Journal of Modern African Studies 7, no. 4 (1969): 611–636.

25. Aristide R. Zolberg, One-Party Government in the Ivory Coast (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964); Widner, “Single Party States and Agricultural Policies: The Cases of Ivory Coast and Kenya,” Comparative Politics 26, no. 2 (1994): 127–147; N’Diaye, The Challenge of Institutionalizing Civilian Control: Botswana, Côte d’Ivoire (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2001); N’Diaye, “The Military in the Politics of West Africa,” 187–190.

26. Alex de Waal, “Mission without End? Peacekeeping in the African Political Market Place,” International Affairs 85, no. 1 (2009): 99–113; Sandbrook, The Politics of African Economic Stagnation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Bah and Ibrahim Bangura, “Landholding and the Creation of Lumpen Tenants in Freetown: Youth Economic Survival and Patrimonialism in Postwar Sierra Leone,” Critical Sociology (2023); Bah and Margaret Nasambu Barasa, “Indigenous Knowledge and the Social Construction of Patriarchy: The Case of the Bukusu of Kenya,” Critical Sociology 49, no. 2 (2023): 217–232.

27. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

28. Peter Harrold, Malathi Jayawickrama, and Deepak Bhattasali, Practical Lessons for Africa from East Asia in Industrial and Trade Policies (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1996).

29. Harrold, Jayawickrama, and Bhattasali, Practical Lessons for Africa.

30. World Development Report, 1989, World Bank, accessed October 12, 2023, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2124.

31. World Development Report, 1989, 194.

32. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

33. Somalia had the lowest GDP per capita of $93.30 in 1991. See “Per Capita GDP at Current Prices—US Dollars,” UN Data: A World of Information, accessed October 12, 2023, http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=GDP+per+capita&d=SNAAMA&f=grID%3a101%3bcurrID%3aUSD%3bpcFlag%3a1.

34. “Per Capita GDP at Current Prices.”

35. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

36. Some of the years used in the tables slightly deviate from the ideal periods due to a lack of data. The available data for the closest years are used in the tables.

37. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

38. US dollar figures (not listed on table 2.1) are based on an exchange rate of USD 1: SLL 0.71 (1964), USD 1: SLL 0.86 (1974), USD 1: SLL 1.24 (1982), USD 1: SLL1.89 (1983), USD 1: SLL 2.51 (1984), and USD 1: SLL 295.34 (1991). All figures, including those not listed on the table, are from the sources noted in table 2.1.

39. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

40. US dollar figures (not listed on table 3.2) are based on an exchange rate of USD 1: 1 LRD. The official 1:1 exchange rate of the Liberian dollar to the US dollar was abandoned at the end of August 1998. See Katherine Murison, Africa South of the Sahara (London: Europa Publications, 2004), 617. All figures, including those not listed on the table, are from the sources noted in table 3.2.

41. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

42. Francs refer to CFA francs. US dollar figures (not listed on table 2.3) are based on an exchange rates of USD 1: 245.0 CFA francs (1964), USD 1: 212.72 CFA francs (1979), USD 1: 211.2 CFA francs (1980), USD 1: 381.06 CFA francs (1983), USD 1: 297.85 CFA francs (1988), USD 1: 283.1 CFA francs (1993), USD 1: 555.20 CFA francs (1994), USD 1: 499.15 CFA francs (1995), USD 1: 696.9 CFA francs (2002). All figures are from the sources noted in table 2.3.

43. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

44. Loucoumane Coulibaly and Ange Aboa, “Ivory Coast Opposition Says Third Term for Ouattara Would Destabilise Country,” Reuters, August 7, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ivorycoast-politics/ivory-coast-opposition-says-third-term-for-ouattara-would-destabilise-country-idUSKCN2531QD.

45. Some of the years used in the tables slightly deviate from the ideal periods due to the lack of data. The available data for the closest years are used in the tables.

46. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

47. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

48. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

49. Zolberg, “The Structure of Political Conflict in the New States of Tropical Africa,” American Political Science Review 62, no.1 (1968): 70.

50. Michael Bratton and Nicolas Van de Walle, “Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa,” World Politics 46, no. 4 (1994): 453–489; Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Nathan Jensen and Leonard Wantchekon, “Resource, Wealth, and Political Regimes in Africa,” Comparative Political Studies 37, no. 7 (2004): 816–841; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Resource Rents, Governance, and Conflict,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 4 (2005): 625–633; Ian Bannon and Collier, eds., Natural Resources and Violent Conflict: Options and Actions (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2003); Robert H. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); David K. Leonard and Scott Straus, Africa’s Stalled Development: International Causes and Cures (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003); Jeffrey D. Sachs and Andrew M. Warner, “Sources of Slow Growth in African Economies,” Journal of African Economies 6, no. 3 (1997): 335–376; Van de Walle, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999 (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

51. Ebenezer Obadare and Wale Adebanwi, eds., Governance and the Crisis of Rule in Contemporary Africa: Leadership in Transformation (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2016).

52. Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design: Peacebuilding and Democracy in Africa (London: Zed, 2020).

53. Bah, “State Decay: A Conceptual Frame,” 71–89.

54. Ian Spears, Believers, Skeptics and Failure in Conflict Resolution (Cham: Palgrave, 2019).

55. Seymour Martin Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Review 53, no. 1 (1959): 69–105; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).

56. Peter Anyang’ Nyong’o, “Africa: The Failure of One-Party Rule,” Journal of Democracy 3, no. 1 (1992): 90–96; Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa; John Wiseman, Democracy and Political Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (London: Routledge, 1995); Stephen P. Riley, “The Democratic Transition in Africa: An End to the One-Party State?,” Conflict Studies 245 (1991): 1–37; Morris Szeftel, “Clientelism, Corruption & Catastrophe,” Review of African Political Economy 27, no. 85 (2000): 427–441; Bratton and Van de Walle, “Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa,” 453–489; Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).

57. Morten Bøås, “Liberia and Sierra Leone—Dead Ringers? The Logic of Neopatrimonial Rule,” Third World Quarterly 22, no. 5 (2001): 697–723; Widner, “Single Party States,” 127–147; Zolberg, One-Party Government; Martin L. Kilson, “Authoritarian and Single-Party Tendencies in African Politics,” World Politics 15, no. 2 (1963): 262–294; Fisher, “Elections and Coups,” 611–636; Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone.

58. Jackson and Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa.

59. Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).

60. Jimmy D. Kandeh, “What Does the ‘Militariat’ Do When It Rules? Military Regimes: The Gambia, Liberia and Sierra Leone,” Review of African Political Economy 23, no. 69 (1996): 387–404; Julius O. Ihonvbere, “Are Things Falling Apart? The Military and the Crisis of Democratization in Nigeria,” Journal of Modern African Studies 34, no. 2 (1996): 193–225.

61. Chabal and Daloz, Africa Works; Kempe R. Hope and Bornwell C. Chikulo, eds., Corruption and Development in Africa: Lessons From Country Case-Studies (New York: Palgrave, 2000); John M. Mbaku, Corruption in Africa: Causes, Consequences, and Cleanups (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2007); Ernest Harsch, “Accumulators and Democrats: Challenging State Corruption in Africa,” Journal of Modern African Studies 31, no. 1 (1993): 31–48; Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan, “A Moral Economy of Corruption in Africa?,” Journal of Modern African Studies 37, no. 1 (1999): 25–52; Sandbrook, “The State and Economic Stagnation,” 319–332.

62. Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone; Bah, “State Decay and Civil War,” 199–216; Ishmail Rashid, “Subaltern Reactions, Lumpen, Students and the Left,” Africa Development 22, no. 3–4 (1997): 19–43; Ibrahim Abdullah, “Bush Path to Destruction: The Origin and Character of the Revolutionary United Front,” Journal of Modern African Studies 36, no. 2 (1998): 203–235; Kayode-Fayemi, “Governing Insecurity in Post-Conflict States: The Case of Sierra Leone and Liberia,” in Reform and Reconstruction of the Security Sector, ed. Alan Bryden and Heiner Hänggi (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2004); Kandeh, “Politicization of Ethnic Identities in Sierra Leone,” African Studies Review 35, no. 1 (1992): 81–99.

63. David F. Luke and Riley, “The Politics of Economic Decline in Sierra Leone,” Journal of Modern African Studies 27, no. 1 (1989): 133–141; Steve Riley and Max Sesay, “Sierra Leone: the Coming Anarchy?,” Review of African Political Economy 22, no. 63 (1995): 121–126; Gerald H. Smith, “The Dichotomy of Politics and Corruption in a Neopatrimonial State: Evidence from Sierra Leone, 1968–1993,” A Journal of Opinion 25, no. 1 (1997): 58–62; Sahr J. Kpundeh, “The Fight Against Corruption in Sierra Leone,” in Curbing Corruption: Toward a Model for Building National Integrity, ed. Rick Stapenhurst and Kpundeh (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999); Thompson and Gary Potter, “Governmental Corruption in Africa: Sierra Leone as a Case Study,” Crime, Law, and Social Change 28, no. 2 (1997): 137–154.

64. Kayode-Fayemi, “Governing Insecurity in Post-Conflict States.”

65. Tuan Wreh, The Love of Liberty: The Rule of President William V. S. Tubman in Liberia, 1944–1971 (New York: Universe Books, 1976); Reno, “Anti-corruption Efforts in Liberia: Are They Aimed at the Right Targets?,” International Peacekeeping 15, no. 3 (2008): 387–404; Jackson and Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa.

66. Ellis, “Liberia 1989–1994,” 165–197; David Harris, “From Warlord to Democratic President: How Charles Taylor Won the 1997 Liberian Elections,” Journal of Modern African Studies 37, no. 3 (1999): 431–455; Sesay, “Security and State-Society Crises in Sierra Leone and Liberia,” in Globalization, Human Security, and the African Experience, ed. Caroline Thomas and Peter Wilkin (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999); Michael Clough, Free at Last? U.S. Policy Toward Africa and the End of the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1992).

67. Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy; Kandeh, “What Does the ‘Militariat’ Do,” 387–404; Henry Bienen, “Populist Military Regimes in West Africa,” Armed Forces & Society 11, no. 3 (1985): 357–377.

68. Jacques Baulin, La Politique Intérieure d’Houphouët-Boigny (Paris: Eurafor, 1982); Baulin, La Politique Africaine d’Houphouët-Boigny (Paris: Eurafor, 1980); Widner, “Two Leadership Styles,” 151–174.

69. Baulin and Gilbert Comte, La Succession d’Houphouët-Boigny: Les Débuts de Konan Bédié (Paris: Karthala, 2000); Thomas J. Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Cotê d’Ivoire 1880–1995 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Bastiaan A. Den Tuinder, Côte d’Ivoire, the Challenge of Success: Report of a Mission Sent to the Ivory Coast by the World Bank (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Robert M. Hecht, “The Ivory Coast Economic ‘Miracle’: What Benefits for Peasant Farmers?,” Journal of Modern African Studies 21, no.1 (2008): 25–53; John Rapley, Ivoirian Capitalism: African Entrepreneurs in Côte d’Ivoire (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner, 1993); Jeanne Maddox Toungara, “The Apotheosis of Côte d’lvoire’s Nana Houphouët-Boigny,” Journal of Modern African Studies 28, no. 1 (1990): 23–54; Richard C. Crook, “Patrimonialism, Administrative Effectiveness and Economic Development,” African Affairs 88, no. 351 (1989): 205–228.

70. Amadou K. Koné, Houphouët-Boigny et la Crise Ivoirienne (Paris: Karthala, 2003); Dwayne Woods, “The Tragedy of the Cocoa Pod: Rent-Seeking, Land and Ethnic Conflict in Côte d’Ivoire,” Journal of Modern African Studies 41, no. 4 (2003): 641–655; Ruth Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who’: Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis,” African Studies Review 49, no. 2 (2006): 9–44; Nandjui, Houphouët-Boigny; Woods, “Elites, Ethnicity, and ‘Home Town’ Associations in the Côte d’Ivoire: An Historical Analysis of State Society Links,” Africa 64, no.4 (1994): 465–483; Crook, “Politics, the Cocoa Crisis, and Administration in Côte d’Ivoire,” Journal of Modern African Studies 28, no. 4 (1990): 649–669; Crook, “Patrimonialism, Administrative Effectiveness and Economic Development,” 205–228.

71. Jean-Pierre Dozon, “La Côte d’Ivoire entre démocratie, nationalisme et ethnonationalisme,” Politique Africaine 78, no. 2 (2000): 45–62; Richard Banégas and Bruno Losch, “La Côte d’Ivoire au Bord de l’implosion,” Politique Africaine 87 (2002): 139–161; Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

72. Walter Rodney, “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa,” in Beyond Borders: Thinking Critically About Global Issues, ed. Paula S. Rothenberg (New York: Worth, 2006); Leonard and Straus, Africa’s Stalled Development; Thad Dunning, “Conditioning the Effects of Aid: Cold War Politics, Donor Credibility, and Democracy in Africa,” International Organization 58, no. 2 (2004): 409–423; Clough, Free at Last?; Frederick Cooper, “Africa and the World Economy,” African Studies Review 24, no. 2–3 (1981): 1–86; Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa; Jacques Delacroix and Charles C. Ragin, “Structural Blockage: A Cross-National Study of Economic Dependency, State Efficacy, and Underdevelopment,” American Journal of Sociology 86, no. 6 (1981): 1311–1347; James D. Fearon, “International Financial Institutions and Economic Policy Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Journal of Modern African Studies 26, no. 1 (1988): 113–137; Samir Amin, “Underdevelopment and Dependence in Black Africa: Historical Origin,” Journal of Peace Research 9, no. 2 (1972): 105–119; Amin, Neo-Colonialism in West Africa (New York: Penguin, 1973); Amin, “Accumulation and Development: A Theoretical Model,” Review of African Political Economy 1, no. 1 (1974): 9–26; Patrick J. McGowan, “Economic Dependence and Economic Performance in Black Africa,” Journal of Modern African Studies 14, no. 1 (1976): 25–40; James Ferguson, Global Shadows: Africa in the Neoliberal World Order (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006); Robert Calderisi, The Trouble with Africa: Why Foreign Aid Isn’t Working (New York: Palgrave-MacMillan, 2006); Stephen N. Ndegwa, The Two Faces of Civil Society: NGOs and Politics in Africa (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian, 1996).

73. Catherine Gegout, Why Europe Intervenes in Africa: Security, Prestige, and the Legacy of Colonialism (London: Hurst, 2017).

74. Sheldon Gellar, State-Building and Nation-Building in West Africa (Bloomington: International Development Research Center, Indiana University, 1972); Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary African and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Basil Davidson, The Black Man’s Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York: Times Press, 1993).

75. Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Fred Marte, Political Cycles in International Relations: The Cold War and Africa, 1945–1990 (Amsterdam: Paul Publishing Consortium, 1994); Peter Schwab, “Cold War on the Horn of Africa,” African Affairs 77, no. 306 (1978): 6–20; Olewe Nyunya Munene and Korwa Gombe, The United States and Africa: From Independence to the End of the Cold War (Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers, 1995); Jackson and Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa.

76. Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design.

77. Gegout, Why Europe Intervenes in Africa.

78. Adebayo Oyebade and Abiodun Alao, Africa After the Cold War: The Changing Perspectives on Security (Trenton, NJ: African World Press, 1998); Bratton and Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa; Graham Harrison, The World Bank and Africa: The Construction of Governance States (New York: Routledge, 2004); Deborah A. Bräutigam and Stephen Knack, “Foreign Aid, Institutions, and Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 52, no. 2 (2004): 255–285.

79. Li Anshan, “China and Africa: Policy and Challenges,” China Security 3, no. 3 (2007): 69–93; Domingos Jardo Muekalia, “Africa and China’s Strategic Partnership,” African Security Review 3, no. 1 (2004): 5–11; Andrea Goldstein, Nicolas Pinaud, Helmut Reisen, and Xiaobao Chen, “China and India: What’s in it for Africa?,” Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Centre (2006).

80. Interview, senior official, Coalition for Justice and Accountability, Freetown.

81. Interview, senior official, Network of Education and Peace Caretakers, Abidjan, 2008.

82. Interview, senior official, West African Network for Peacebuilding, Monrovia, 2008.

83. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Bøås, “Liberia and Sierra Leone,” 697–723; Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy.

84. Interview, member of parliament, Monrovia, 2008.

85. United Liberation Movement for Democracy, which was later renamed United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy.

86. Interview, member of parliament, Monrovia, 2008.

87. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Hirsch, Sierra Leone; Richards, “To Fight or to Farm?,” 571–590; Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy.

88. “United Nations Mission in Liberia,” UN Peacekeeping, accessed October 12, 2023, https://unmil.unmissions.org/.

89. Interview, secretary general for the Inter-Religious Council of Liberia, Monrovia, 2008.

90. United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) Liberia 2008–2012, UN in Liberia, Monrovia, LR, 200.

91. United Nations Development, 1.

92. Statistical Yearbook 2003: Trends in Displacement, Protection and Solutions, UNHCR, Geneva, 2005, annex A.6.

93. Statistical Yearbook 2003.

94. Angela Thompsell, “A Brief History of The African Country of Liberia,” ThoughtCo., September 9, 2020, https://www.thoughtco.com/brief-history-of-liberia-4019127#.

95. There is much speculation that the war in Sierra Leone was instigated by Taylor as retaliation against the government of Momoh for allowing ECOMOG to use Sierra Leone as a base to launch its operations in Liberia. However, the TRC has clearly noted that “it was years of bad governance, endemic corruption and the denial of basic human rights that created the deplorable conditions that made conflict inevitable.” While external forces facilitated the war, the war was purely a RUF-led rebellion by the people of Sierra Leone. See TRC, Witness to Truth, vol. 1, 10.

96. Foday Saybana Sankoh, “Footpaths to Democracy: Toward a New Sierra Leone,” Revolutionary United Front Manifesto, 1995.

97. “World: Africa Sierra Leone Rebels Reject Peace Offer,” BBC News, June 23, 1999, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/376323.stm; UN Development Fund for Women, Women, Peace and Security: UNIFEM Supporting Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325, New York, 2004, 28.

98. Statistical Yearbook 2003.

99. Statistical Yearbook 2003, table A.6.

100. United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) Sierra Leone 2004–2007, UN Country Team, Freetown, SL, 2003.

101. TRC, Witness to Truth.

102. Abdullah, “Bush Path to Destruction”; Lansana Gberie, A Dirty War in West Africa: The RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2005).

103. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism: War and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone,” Africa Today 60, no. 1 (2013): 3–26.

104. TRC, Witness to Truth; Hirsch, Sierra Leone.

105. Zubairu Wai, “Rethinking War and Violence in Sierra Leone: The RUF and the Nature and Condition of Insurgency Violence,” African Conflict & Peacebuilding Review 13, no. 1 (2023): 44–76.

106. Interview, member, RUF and Promoters of Justice and Peace, Freetown, 2008.

107. Interview, Solomon Berewa, vice president of Sierra Leone, Freetown, 2008; David J. Francis, “Torturous Path to Peace: The Lomé Accord and Postwar Peacebuilding,” Sierra Leone Security Dialogue 31, no. 3 (2000): 357–373; Hirsch, Sierra Leone; Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Yusuf Bangura, “Strategic Policy Failure and Governance in Sierra Leone,” Journal of Modern African Studies 38, no. 4 (2000): 551–577; Larry J. Woods and Timothy R. Reese, Military Interventions in Sierra Leone: Lessons from a Failed State (Seattle, WA: CreateSpace, 2008); Julius Mutwol, Peace Agreements and Civil Wars in Africa: Insurgent Motivations, State Responses and Third Party Peacemaking in Liberia, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone (Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2009).

108. Interview, senior official, UNDP, Freetown, 2008.

109. Olusegun Obasanjo, “Nigeria, Africa and the World in the Next Millennium: Statement by President Olusegun Obasanjo,” General Debate of the 54th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, 1999.

110. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa, 91.

111. Resolution 1181, UN Security Council, July 13, 1998.

112. Resolution 1289, UN Security Council, February 7, 2000.

113. Resolution 1346, UN Security Council, March 30, 2001.

114. Ninth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, UN Security Council, March 14, 2001.

115. Fourth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, UN Security Council, May 19, 2000.

116. “Security Council Establishes UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone to Further Address Root Causes of Conflict,” UN Security Council, August 31, 2005.

117. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

118. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615; Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44; Toungara, “Francophone Africa in Flux: Ethnicity and Political Crisis in Côte d’Ivoire,” Journal of Democracy 12, no. 3 (2001): 63–72.

119. Interview, Ivoirian diplomat, New York, 2005; Interview, lecturer, University of Cocody, Abidjan, June 6, 2008; Dozon, “La Côte d’Ivoire entre démocratie,” 45–62; Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44.

120. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

121. Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44; Toungara, “Francophone Africa in Flux,” 63–72; Peter Geschiere, The Perils of Belonging: Autochthony, Citizenship, and Exclusion in Africa and Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Banégas, “Côte d’Ivoire: Patriotism, Ethno-nationalism, and Other African Modes of Self-Writing,” African Affairs 105, no. 421 (2006): 535–552.

122. Article 35 of the 2000 Constitution.

123. Ouattara lived out of the country and is believed to have held a Burkina Faso passport. See Toungara, “Francophone Africa in Flux,” 63–72.

124. Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44; Toungara, “Francophone Africa in Flux,” 63–72; Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

125. Banégas, “Côte d’Ivoire,” 542.

126. Daniel Chirot, “The Debacle in Côte d’Ivoire,” Journal of Democracy 17, no. 2 (2006): 63–77; Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44; Interview, northern businessman and community leader, Abidjan, June 7, 2008.

127. Interview, lawyer and community leader, Abidjan, 2008.

128. Arnim Langer, “Horizontal Inequalities and Violent Group Mobilization in Côte d’Ivoire,” Oxford Development Series 33, no. 1 (2005): 25–45.

129. Banégas and Losch, “La Côte d’Ivoire au Bord de l’Implosion,” 139–161.

130. “Clashes at Côte d’Ivoire Army Camp,” BBC News, October 25, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/988935.stm; “Côte d’Ivoire Bars Opposition Leader,” BBC News, October 6, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/960415.stm; “Côte d’Ivoire Reins In Soldiers,” BBC News, October 30, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/998144.stm; John Akokpari, “‘You Don’t Belong Here’ Citizenship, the State & Africa’s Conflicts: Reflections on Côte d’Ivoire,” in The Roots of African Conflicts: The Causes and Costs, ed. Alfred G. Nhema and Paul Zeleza Tiyambe (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008).

131. Woods, “The Tragedy of the Cocoa Pod,” 641–655; Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who,’” 9–44.

132. Akokpari, “‘You Don’t Belong Here’”; Banégas, “Côte d’Ivoire,” 535–552.

133. “Heavy Gunfire in Ivoirian City,” BBC News, September 19, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2267971.stm.

134. Paul Welsh, “Côte d’Ivoire: Who Are the Rebels?,” BBC News, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2662655.stm.

135. The FN also includes dozos (traditional hunters) and dissident soldiers supporting General Guéï.

136. Ivoirité is “no more or no less than a xenophobic concept. The word Ivoirité in its true sense means nothing other than: ‘Côte d’Ivoire to Ivoirians,’ that is to say in plain language, to those who are from the South, the Northerners are considered foreigners in their own country.” See Guillaume Soro and Serge Daniel, Pourquoi je Suis Devenu un Rebelle: La Côte d’Ivoire au Bord du Gouffre; Entretiens avec Serge Daniel (Paris: Hachette Littératures, 2005), 20.

137. First Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire (S/2004/443), UN Security Council, June 2, 2004.

138. First Report of the Secretary-General.

139. First Report of the Secretary-General.

140. First Report of the Secretary-General.

141. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

142. Collier and Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” Oxford Economic Papers 56, no. 4 (2004): 563–595; Gberie, A Dirty War in West Africa; Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Thomas George Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention: Ideas in Action (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2007).

143. Bassett, “Dangerous Pursuits: Hunter Associations (Donzo Ton) and National Politics in Côte d’Ivoire,” Africa 73, no 1 (2003): 1–30; Bassett, “Containing the Donzow: The Politics of Scale in Côte d’Ivoire,” Africa Today 50, no. 4 (2004): 31–49.

3. HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION AND PEACE BUILDING

1. Abu Bakarr Bah, Breakdown and Reconstitution: Democracy, the Nation-State, and Ethnicity in Nigeria (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2005); Adekeye Adebajo and Ismail Rashid, eds., West Africa’s Security Challenges: Building Peace in a Troubled Region (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004); Kenneth Omeje, “The State, Conflict & Evolving Politics in the Niger Delta, Nigeria,” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 101 (2004): 425–440; Amos Sawyer, “Violent Conflicts and Governance Challenges in West Africa: The Case of the Mano River Basin Area,” Journal of Modern African Studies 42, no. 3 (2004): 437–363; Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Bah, “Changing World Order and the Future of Democracy in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Proteus, A Journal of Ideas 21, no. 1 (2004): 3–12; Kathryn Nwajiaku, “The National Conferences in Benin and Togo Revisited,” Journal of Modern African Studies 32, no. 3 (1994): 429–447; Boubacar N’Diaye, Abdoulaye Saine, and Matturin Houngnikpo, Not Yet Democracy: West Africa’s Slow Farewell to Authoritarianism (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2005).

2. Augustine Ikelegbe, “Civil Society, Oil and Conflict in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: Ramifications of Civil Society for a Regional Resource Struggle,” Journal of Modern African Studies 39, no. 3 (2001): 437–469; Dimieari Von Kemedi, “The Changing Predatory Styles of International Oil Companies in Nigeria,” Review of African Political Economy 30, no. 95 (2003): 134–139; J. Shola Omotola, “From Political Mercenarism to Militias: The Political Origin of Niger Delta Militias,” Journal of Alternative Perspective in the Social Sciences (2009): 91–124; Michael Nwankpa, “Understanding the Local-Global Dichotomy and Drivers of the Boko Haram Insurgency,” African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review 10, no. 2 (2020): 43–64.

3. Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Michael Barnett, Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002); Bruce D. Jones, Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure (Boulder, CO: Lynn Rienner, 2001); Samuel Totten and Eric Markusen, Genocide in Darfur: Investigating the Atrocities in the Sudan (New York: Routledge, 2006); Judy Mayotte, “Civil War in Sudan: The Paradox of Human Rights and National Sovereignty,” Journal of International Affairs 47, no. 2 (1994): 497–524; David Laitin, “Somalia: Civil War and International Intervention,” in Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention, ed. Barbara F. Walter and Jack Snyder (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); Morten Bøås and Kevin C. Dunn, eds., African Guerillas: Raging Against the Machine (Boulder, CO: Lynn Rienner, 2007); Mohamoud A. Abdullah, State Collapse and Post-Conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960–2001) (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006); Jan Nederveen Pieterse, “Sociology of Humanitarian Intervention: Bosnia, Rwanda and Somalia Compared,” International Political Science Review 18, no. 1 (1997): 71–93; Séverine Autesserre, The Trouble with the Congo: Local Violence and the Failure of International Peacebuilding (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Autesserre, Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

4. Judy Atkins, “A New Approach to Humanitarian Intervention? Tony Blair’s Doctrine of the International Community,” British Politics 1 (2006): 274–283; Georges Abi-Saab, “Whither the International Community?,” European Journal of International Law 9, no. 2 (1998): 248–265; Dianne Otto, “Subalternity and International Law: The Problems of Global Community and the Incommensurability of Difference,” Social & Legal Studies 5, no. 3 (1996): 337–364; Bardo Fassbender, The United Nations Charter as the Constitution of the International Community (Leiden, NL: Matinus Nijhoff, 2009); Howard M. Hensel, Sovereignty and the Global Community: The Quest for Order in the International System (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004); Bah, Abu Bakarr. (ed.) 2024. African Security Local Issues and Global Connections. Athens: Ohio University Press.

5. Arun Agrawal and Clark C. Gibson. “Enchantment and Disenchantment: The Role of Community in Natural Resource Conservation,” World Development 27, no. 4 (1999): 629–649; Elizabeth Frazer, The Problems of Communitarian Politics Unity and Conflict (Oxford: University Press, 2000); Anthony P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community (London: Tavistock, 1985); Tim Jordan, “Community, Everyday and Space,” in Understanding Everyday Life, ed. Tony Bennett and Diane Watsons (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Michael Young and Peter Willmott, Family and Kinship in East London (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1957); Alison Gilchrist, A Well-Connected Community: A Net Working Approach to Community Development (Bristol, UK: Policy, 2004).

6. Adam Roberts, “The Road to Hell: A Critique of Humanitarian Intervention,” Harvard International Review 16, no.1 (1993): 10–13; Stanley Hoffmann, Robert C. Johansen, James T. Sterba, and Raimo Vayrynen, The Ethics and Politics of Humanitarian Intervention (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996); ICISS, “The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty,” International Development Research Centre, 2001; Terry Nardin, “The Moral Basis of Humanitarian Intervention,” Ethics and International Affairs 16, no. 1 (2002): 57–70; Thomas George Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention: Ideas in Action (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2007).

7. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism: War and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone,” Africa Today 60, no. 1 (2013): 3–26.

8. Pieterse, “Sociology of Humanitarian Intervention,” 71–93; ICISS, “The Responsibility to Protect”; Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention.

9. Johansen, “Limits and Opportunities in Humanitarian Intervention,” in The Ethics and Politics of Humanitarian Intervention, ed. Hoffman, Johansen, Sterba, and Väyrynen (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1996).

10. ICISS, “The Responsibility to Protect,” 11.

11. Bah, ed., International Security and Peacebuilding: Africa, the Middle East, and Europe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017).

12. Nardin, “The Moral Basis of Humanitarian Intervention,” 57–70.

13. ICISS, “The Responsibility to Protect.”

14. Hoffmann et al., The Ethics and Politics of Humanitarian Intervention; Mohammed Ayoob, “Third World Perspective on Humanitarian Intervention and International Administration,” Global Governance 10 (2004): 99–118; Bah, International Security and Peacebuilding.

15. Declaration of the South Summit, Group of 77 South Summit, Havana, CU, April 10–14, 2000, para. 54.

16. Neta Crawford, Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention (Cambridge, UK: University Press Cambridge, 2002).

17. Roberts, “The Road to Hell,” 10–13; Pieterse, “Sociology of Humanitarian Intervention,” 71–93.

18. Bah, International Security and Peacebuilding.

19. Hoffmann et al., The Ethics and Politics of Humanitarian Intervention; Nardin, “The Moral Basis of Humanitarian Intervention,” 57–70; Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention.

20. Kofi A. Annan, “Two Concepts of Sovereignty,” The Economist 18, no. 9 (1999): 49–50; Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now (New York: United Nations Publications, 2003); S. Neil MacFarlane and Yuen Foong-Khong, Human Security and the UN: A Critical History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).

21. Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now, iv.

22. Roberta Cohen and Francis Mading Deng, Masses in Flight: The Global Crisis of Internal Displacement (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1998); Annan, “Two Concepts of Sovereignty,” 49–50; ICISS, “The Responsibility to Protect.”

23. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism: War and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone,” Africa Today 60, no. 1 (2013): 3–26.

24. Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” Oxford Economic Papers 56, no. 4 (2004): 563–595; Lansana Gberie, A Dirty War in West Africa: The RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2005); Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Bah, “Civil Non-State Actors in Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding in West Africa,” Journal of International Peacekeeping 17, no. 3–4 (2013): 313–336.

25. Weiss, Humanitarian Intervention, 73.

26. Barnett, “Humanitarianism Transformed,” Perspectives on Politics, 3, no. 4 (2005): 723–740; Joanna Macrae, ed., “The New Humanitarianisms: A Review of Trends in Global Humanitarian Action,” Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute 11 (2002).

27. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

28. Note that in both Liberia and Sierra Leone, the transition to new humanitarianism occurred after the international community was able to delineate between good guys and bad guys—in Sierra Leone after the coup, in Liberia after Taylor’s implication in the Sierra Leone war, and in Côte d’Ivoire perhaps after the 2010 presidential elections.

29. “Ivory Coast Policemen Die in Clashes in Abidjan,” BBC News, January 12, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12170838; Mark Doyle, “No Rush to Military Intervention in Côte d’Ivoire,” BBC News, December 31, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12096437; Thomas Fessy, “Côte d’Ivoire: Life Inside Ouattara’s Hotel,” BBC News, December 23, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12068131; “Ghana President Questions Côte d’Ivoire Military Option,” BBC News, January 7, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12136353; “Ivory Coast Unity Cabinet Possible, Says UN Ambassador,” BBC News, January 11, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12157810; “Côte d’Ivoire: Gbagbo ‘Expels UK and Canada Envoys,’” BBC News, January 7, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12132835.

30. The RUF fought the APC government of Joseph Momoh (1985–1992), NPRC military regime of Valentine Strasser (1992–1996), and SLPP government of Kabbah (1996–2007).

31. Hirsch, Sierra Leone; Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Sierra Leone, Witness to Truth: Report of the Sierra Leone Truth & Reconciliation Commission, vol. 1, 2, 3A, and 3B (2004), accessed November 3, 2023, https://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-the-final-report; Funmi Olonisakin, “Nigeria, ECOMOG, and the Sierra Leone Crisis,” in Between Democracy and Terror: The Sierra Leone Civil War, ed. Ibrahim Abdullah (Dakar, SN: Codresia, 2004).

32. ECOWAS, “Final Communiqué,” Ministers of Foreign Affairs meeting, Conakry, GN, June 26, 1997.

33. Resolution 1132, UN Security Council, October 8, 1997; Commonwealth Heads of Government, “The Edinburgh Communiqué,” Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1998; Council of Ministers, Decisions Adopted by the Sixty-Sixth Ordinary Session of the Council of Ministers, Organization of African Unity, Harare, ZW, May 28–31, 1997.

34. For some details on ECOMOG, see Europa Publications, The Europa World Year Book 2004, vol. 1 (London: Routledge, 2004), 198; Europa Publications, Africa South of the Sahara (London: Psychology Press, 2004), 829.

35. Resolution 1181, UN Security Council, July 13, 1998.

36. Interview, official, UN Department of Political Affairs, New York, 2005; Interview, senior official, Office of National Security, State House, Freetown, 2008.

37. Resolution 1289, UN Security Council, February 7, 2000.

38. Resolution 1346, UN Security Council, March 30, 2001.

39. Ninth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, UN Security Council, March 14, 2001, 9.

40. Interview, official, Nigerian Mission to the UN, New York, 2005; Interview, official, UN Peace and Security Department, New York, 2005.

41. Interview, Solomon Berewa, vice president of Sierra Leone, Freetown, 2008.

42. Paul Richards, “The Political Economy of Internal Conflict in Sierra Leone,” Netherlands Institute of International Relations, Clingendael Conflict Research Unit, 2003.

43. Tanja Schümer, New Humanitarianism: Britain and Sierra Leone, 1997–2003 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

44. UNAMSIL, “UNAMSIL: A Success Story in Peacekeeping,” United Nations Department of Public Information: Peace and Security Section, December 2005, accessed November 3, 2023, https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unamsil/Overview.pdf.

45. Interview, diplomat, UK Mission to the UN, New York, 2005; Interview, official, Nigerian Mission to the UN, New York, 2005; Interview, official, Mission of Guinea to the UN, New York, 2005.

46. Interview, official, Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Management, UNDP, New York, 2005.

47. “Sierra Leone,” Amnesty International, https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/west-and-central-africa/sierra-leone/; John Kabia, Humanitarian Intervention and Conflict Resolution in West Africa: From ECOMOG to ECOMIL (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009).

48. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa.

49. Council of Ministers, Decisions Adopted by the Sixty-Sixth Ordinary Session; Commonwealth Heads of State, “The Edinburgh Communiqué.”

50. Resolution 1132, UN Security Council.

51. Fourth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, UN Security Council, May 19, 2000.

52. Andrew Dorman, Blair’s Successful War: British Military Intervention in Sierra Leone (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009).

53. Christopher Tuck, “Every Car or Moving Object Gone: The ECOMOG Intervention in Liberia,” African Studies Quarterly 4, no. 1 (2000): 1–16.

54. Comfort Ero, “ECOWAS and the Subregional Peacekeeping in Liberia,” Journal of Humanitarian Assistance (1995).

55. Adebajo, Building Peace in West Africa; Sawyer, “Violent Conflicts and Governance Challenges in West Africa,” 437–463; Max Sesay, ‘“Bringing Peace to Liberia,’” in The Liberian Peace Process 1990–1996, ed. J. Armon and A. Carl (London: Conciliation Resources, 1996), 9–26, 75–79.

56. Ikechi Mgbeoji, Collective Insecurity: The Liberian Crisis, Unilateralism, and Global Order (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2003).

57. Liberia. Cotonou Agreement, July 25,1993, https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5796.html.

58. “Past Peace Operations,” UN Peacekeeping, accessed October 14, 2023, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/past-peacekeeping-operations.

59. Resolution 866, UN Security Council, September 22, 1993.

60. Resolution 866 UN Security Council.

61. Resolution 1020, UN Security Council, November 10, 1995.

62. Liberia. Cotonou Agreement, July 25,1993, accessed January 10, 2024. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5796.html.

63. Liberia. Cotonou Agreement, July 25,1993, accessed January 10, 2024. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5796.html.

64. “Past Peace Operations.”

65. “Past Peace Operations.”

66. “Past Peace Operations.”

67. “Past Peace Operations.”

68. “Past Peace Operations.”

69. “Past Peace Operations.”

70. Interview, official, Liberian Women Initiative, Monrovia, 2008; Interview, official, Center for Media Studies and Peacebuilding, Monrovia, 2008; Interview, member of Parliament, Monrovia, 2008.

71. Interview, official, South African Mission to the UN, New York, 2005; Interview, official, Nigerian Mission to the UN, New York, 2005.

72. Interview, official, UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, New York, 2005.

73. “Thousands Cheer U.S. Troops in Liberia,” CNN World, August 14, 2003, http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/africa/08/14/us.liberia/index.html; “US Pulls Out of Liberia,” BBC News, September 30, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3150650.stm.

74. “UNMIL: Background,” UN Peacekeeping, accessed October 14, 2023, https://unmil.unmissions.org/background.

75. Resolution 1509, UN Security Council, September 19, 2003.

76. Resolution 1638, UN Security Council, November 11, 2005, 1.

77. Resolution 1509, UN Security Council.

78. “UNMIL: Background”; “UNMIL: Fact Sheet,” United Nations, accessed October 14, 2023, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmil; “UNMIL: DDR,” UN Peacekeeping, accessed October 14, 2023, https://unmil.unmissions.org/disarmament-demobilization-and-reintegration-ddr.

79. “UNMIL: Background”; “UNMIL: Fact Sheet”; “UNMIL: DDR.”

80. “UNMIL: Background”; “UNMIL: Fact Sheet”; “UNMIL: DDR.”

81. “UNMIL: Background”; “UNMIL: Fact Sheet”; “UNMIL: DDR.”

82. “UNMIL Fact Sheet.”

83. Interview, official, Embassy of Germany, Abidjan, 2008; Interview, official, EU Commission Delegation to Côte d’Ivoire, Abidjan, 2008; Interview, official, Embassy of Senegal, Abidjan, 2008; Interview, senior adviser, Office of the President, Abidjan, 2008.

84. “MINUCI: Background,” UN Peacekeeping, accessed October 14, 2023, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/past/minuci/background.html.

85. Novosseloff, Alexandra. “The Many Lives of a Peacekeeping Mission: The Un Operation In Côte D’ivoire.” New York: International Peace Institute, June 2018. https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/1806_Many-Lives-of-a-Peacekeeping-Mission.pdf.

86. Report of the Secretary-General on Côte d’Ivoire, UN Security Council, March 26, 2003; “Côte d’Ivoire: ECOWAS Approves Beefed-Up ECOMICI Contingent,” New Humanitarian, April 8, 2003, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2003/04/08/ecowas-approves-beefed-ecomici-contingent.

87. Donald C. F. Daniel, Patricia Taft, and Sharon Wiharta. Peace Operations: Trends, Progress, and Prospects (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2007).

88. Resolution 1479, UN Security Council, May 13, 2003.

89. Resolution 1528, UN Security Council, February 27, 2004.

90. Resolution 1528, UN Security Council; Resolution 1609, UN Security Council, June 24, 2005; Resolution 1739, UN Security Council, January 10, 2007; Resolution 1765, UN Security Council, July 16, 2007.

91. Resolution 1572, UN Security Council, November 15, 2004, para. 7.

92. Resolution 1967, UN Security Council, January 19, 2011.

93. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d’Ivoire,” African Affairs 109, no. 437 (2010): 597–615.

94. Cabinet du Premier Ministre, République de Côte d’Ivoire, “Communique du Porte-Parole du Premier Ministre (01/050308),” March 6, 2008; UN Security Council, Nineteenth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, January 8, 2009; Gouvernement de Côte d’Ivoire, “Conseil des Ministres: L’election presidentielle fixee au 29 novembre 2009,” May 14, 2009, https://news.abidjan.net/articles/331069/conseil-des-ministres-hier-lelection-presidentielle-fixee-au-29-novembre-2009. .

95. Interview, official, UNDP, Freetown, 2008.

96. Interview, professor, University of Liberia, Monrovia, 2008.

97. Bah and Nikolas Emmanuel, “Positive Peace and the Methodology of Costing Peacebuilding Needs,” Administrative Theory & Praxis 43, no. 3 (2020): 299–318.

98. Bah, Post-Conflict Institutional Design: Peacebuilding and Democracy in Africa (London: Zed, 2020).

99. Julius Mutwol, Peace Agreements and Civil Wars in Africa: Insurgent Motivations, State Responses and Third Party Peacemaking in Liberia, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone (Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2009), 233; Gberie, “First Stages on the Road to Peace: The Abidjan Process (1995–96),” Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives 9 (2000): 18–25.

100. Mutwol, Peace Agreements and Civil Wars in Africa, 232–237.

101. Interview, Solomon Berewa, vice president of Sierra Leone, Freetown, 2008.

102. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

103. Republic of Sierra Leone, “Abidjan Peace Accord,” Sierra Leone Web, November 30, 1996, http://www.sierra-leone.org/abidjanaccord.html.

104. Republic of Sierra Leone, “Abidjan Peace Accord,” article 26.

105. Hirsch, Sierra Leone, 55.

106. Republic of Sierra Leone, “Lomé Peace Agreement,” Sierra Leone Web, June 3, 1999, http://www.sierra-leone.org/lomeaccord.html, article XVI.

107. Republic of Sierra Leone, “Lomé Peace Agreement.”

108. Patricia O’Brien, “Statement by Ms. Patricia O’Brien Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, The Legal Counsel. Office of Legal Affairs,” United Nations, New York, September 23, 2009, 7.

109. Interview, civil society activist, Network of Education & Peace Caretakers, Abidjan, 2008.

110. Interview, member of the Inter-religious Council and the Human Right Commission, Freetown, 2008.

111. Fourth Report of the Secretary-General, UN Security Council, 5.

112. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

113. “World Briefing: Africa—Sierra Leone: U.N. Prosecutor Demands Body,” New York Times, May 14, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/14/world/world-briefing-africa-sierra-leone-un-prosecutor-demands-body.html?src=pm.

114. Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism,” 3–26.

115. Republic of Sierra Leone, “Abuja Ceasefire Agreement,” Sierra Leone Web, November 10, 2000, http://www.sierra-leone.org/ceasefire1100.html.

116. Mark Malan, Phenyo Rakate, and Angela McIntyre, Monograph 68: Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone: UNAMSIL Hits the Home Straight (Pretoria, ZA: Institute for Security Studies, 2002).

117. UNAMSIL, “UNAMSIL: A Success Story in Peacekeeping,” 1.

118. Guinea was in favor of the intervention.

119. Mitikishe M. Khobe, “The Evolution and Conduct of ECOMOG Operations in West Africa,” in Monograph 44: Boundaries of Peace Support Operations (Pretoria, ZA: Institute for Security Studies, 2000).

120. The agreements signed during the civil war include: Bamako Ceasefire Agreement (November 1990), Banjul Agreement (December 1990), Lomé Agreement (February 1991), three agreements in Yamoussoukro (April to September 1991), Yamoussoukro IV Agreement (October 1991), Geneva Ceasefire Agreement (July 1993), Cotonou Agreement (July 1993), Akosombo Agreement (September 1994), Agreement on the Clarification of the Akosombo Agreement (December 1994), Acceptance and Accession Agreement (December 1994), Abuja Accord (August 1995), Supplement to the Abuja Accord (August 1996), Agreement on Ceasefire and Cessation of Hostilities Between the Government of the Republic of Liberia and Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (Accra June 2003), and Comprehensive Peace Agreement (August 2003); Conciliation Resources, “The Liberian Peace Process 1990–1996,” Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives 1 (1996).

121. These positions include members of the Council of State, Supreme Court Justices, members of the Elections Commission, cabinet ministers, members of the Transitional Legislative Assembly, managing directors or heads of public corporations and autonomous agencies.

122. For example, the AFL supported Liberian Peace Council (September 1993), the NPFL supported Lofa Defense Force (December 1993), and the split of ULIMO into ULIMO-K and ULIMO-J (May 1994).

123. The LNC held several national conferences, including the 1994 conference in Monrovia.

124. Interview, official, Mano River Women’s Peace Network, Monrovia, 2008.

125. The ICGL (established in 2002) includes Ghana, Nigeria, Morocco, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, the AU, ECOWAS Secretariat, the European Union, and the UN.

126. Interview, senior official, West African Network for Peacebuilding, Monrovia, 2008.

127. Bah, “Civil Non-State Actors,” 313–336.

128. Republic of Liberia, “Agreement on Ceasefire and Cessation of Hostilities between the Government of the Republic of Liberia and Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia,” United States Institute of Peace, June 17, 2003, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/liberia_ceasefire_06172003.pdf.

129. By the time the agreement was signed, Taylor had resigned and been sent into exile. The GOL was headed by Taylor’s deputies in the NPFL and NPP, most notably Moses Blah, who was the vice president, and Daniel L. Chea Sr., who was the minister of National Defence. Blah became president after Taylor’s resignation.

130. Some of the notable civic organizations include the Inter-religious Council for Liberia (IRCL) and the Manor River Women Peace Network (MARWOPNET).

131. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003. Article 11 https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia.

132. Interview, member of parliament, Monrovia, 2008.

133. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003. (Article XXIX) https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia.

134. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003. (Article XXIII) https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia.

135. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003. (Article III) https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia; ECOMIL and US forces were deployed in August 2003. See: “Annualized implementation data on comprehensive intrastate peace accords, 1989–2012.” Madhav Joshi, Jason Michael Quinn, and Patrick M. Regan. Journal of Peace Research 52 (2015): 551-562.

136. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003. (Article XXIX) https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia.

137. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003 (Article VII) https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia.

138. The agreement temporarily superseded the constitutional statutes and other laws that were incompatible with the agreement, such as the composition and powers of the three organs of the government.

139. In some cases, the agreement referred to the three branches of the government as the NTGL. However, in most parts of the agreement, the executive branch was referred to as NTGL, while the legislature was referred to as the NTLA and the judiciary as the Supreme Court.

140. Liberia. Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties Accra, August 18, 2003. (Article IX) https://www.usip.org/publications/2003/08/peace-agreements-liberia.

141. The agreements are Linas-Marcousis (2003), Accra II (2003), Accra III (2004), and Pretoria (2005).

142. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

143. Interview, UN official, New York, 2005; Interview, European diplomat, Abidjan, 2008; Marrack Goulding, “The United Nations and Conflict in Africa since the Cold War,” African Affairs 98, no. 391 (1999): 155–166.

144. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

145. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

146. The parties to the agreement are the major political parties (PDCI, RDR, FPI), rebel groups (MPCI, MJP, MPIGO), and smaller political parties (Mouvement des Forces de l’Avenir, Parti Ivoirien des Travailleurs, Union Democratique et Citoyenne, and Union pour la Democratie et la Paix en Côte d’ Ivoire).

147. Interview, Ivoirian diplomat, New York, 2005; Interview, African diplomat, Abidjan, June 7, 2008; “Ivoirian Rebels Stick to Peace Deal,” BBC News, February 4, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2724805.stm; “Ivoirian Peace Deal Provokes Fury,” BBC News, February 1, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2715779.stm; “Côte d’Ivoire: All Sides Pledge Commitment to Peace Process Again, but Will Anything Change?,” New Humanitarian, December 7, 2004, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2004/12/07/all-sides-pledge-commitment-peace-process-again-will-anything-change.

148. UN Security Council, Linas-Marcoussis Agreement, New York, January 27, 2003.

149. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

150. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Reliefweb, “Linas-Marcoussis Agreement: Cote d’Ivoire,” January 23, 2003. https://reliefweb.int/report/c%C3%B4te-divoire/linas-marcoussis-agreement-cote-divoire.

151. Présidence de la République de Côte d’Ivoire. Constitution De 2000. La Deuxieme Constitution. Loi N°2000-513 DU 1 er AOÛT 2000 Portant Constitution De La Côte D’ivoire. August 1, 2000. https://www.presidence.ci/constitution-de-2000; /; Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, Constitution of 2000 accessed January 10, 2024. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cote_DIvoire_2000.

152. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

153. Interview, northern businessman and community leader, Abidjan, June 7, 2008.

154. Ruth Marshall-Fratani, “The War of ‘Who is Who’: Autochthony, Nationalism, and Citizenship in the Ivoirian Crisis,” African Studies Review 49, no. 2 (2006): 9–44; Peter Geschiere, The Perils of Belonging: Autochthony, Citizenship, and Exclusion in Africa and Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Richard Banégas, “Côte d’Ivoire: Patriotism, Ethno-nationalism, and Other African Modes of Self-Writing,” African Affairs 105, no. 421 (2006): 535–552; John Akokpari, “‘You Don’t Belong Here’ Citizenship, the State & Africa’s Conflicts: Reflections on Côte d’Ivoire,” in The Roots of African Conflicts: The Causes and Costs, ed. Alfred G. Nhema and Paul Zeleza Tiyambe (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008); Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

155. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

156. “Ivoirian Rebels Stick to Peace Deal.”

157. République de Côte d’Ivoire, “Accord Accra II (Ghana) sur la Crise en Côte d’Ivoire,” Accra, GH, March 7, 2003.

158. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

159. “Accra III Agreement on Côte d’Ivoire,” UN Security Council, July 30, 2004.

160. “Pretoria Agreement on the Peace Process in the Côte d’Ivoire,” Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, Pretoria, ZA, 2005.

161. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615

162. “Côte d’Ivoire: Les demi-mesures ne suffiront pas,” International Crisis Group Africa 33 (2005); “PM Signals New Ivoirian Stand-Off,” BBC News, November 8, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6130248.stm.

163. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615

164. Interview, adviser to the president, Abidjan, 2008; Interview, African diplomat, Abidjan, June 7, 2008.

165. Twelfth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Security Council, March 8, 2007; Nico Colombant and Guillaume Michel, “Gbagbo Speech Divides Ivoirians,” Voice of America, October 31, 2009, https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2006-12-20-voa26/319336.html.

166. Resolution 1721 UN Security Council, November 1, 2006.

167. Interview, adviser to the president, Abidjan, 2008.

168. “Direct Dialogue: Ouagadougou Political Agreement,” UN Security Council, (S/2007/144) March 4, 2007. https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/wp-content/accords/Ouagadougou_Political_Agreement_OPA.pdf

169. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

170. United Nations Security Council. “Direct Dialogue: Ouagadougou Political Agreement.” March 4, 2007 (Article 1). https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/wp-content/accords/Ouagadougou_Political_Agreement_OPA.pdf.

171. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

172. United Nations Security Council. “Direct Dialogue: Ouagadougou Political Agreement.” March 4, 2007 (Article 1.1.2)

173. United Nations Security Council. “Direct Dialogue: Ouagadougou Political Agreement.” March 4, 2007 (Article 1.3).

174. Société d’Application Générales Electriques et Mécaniques was the technical agency.

175. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

176. République de Côte d’Ivoire, Loi n° 61–416 du 14 Décembre 1961 Portant Code de la Nationalité Ivoirienne, modifiée par la loi n° 72–852 du 21 décembre 1972. For a full discussion of the citizenship law from 1961 to 2010, see Magali L. B. Chelpi, Militarized Youths in Western Côte d’Ivoire: Local Processes of Mobilization, Demobilization, and Related Humanitarian Interventions (2002–2007) (Leiden, NL: African Studies Centre, 2011).

177. Présidence de la République de Côte d’Ivoire. Constitution De 2000. La Deuxieme Constitution. Loi N°2000-513 DU 1 er AOÛT 2000 Portant Constitution De La Côte D’ivoire. August 1, 2000. https://www.presidence.ci/constitution-de-2000; Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, Constitution of 2000. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cote_DIvoire_2000.

178. In addition to the challenges of Ouattara’s citizenship, he was also disqualified from the elections on the ground that he does not meet the residency criteria for the presidency. In subsequent elections, he was able to meet the residency criteria because he was permanently based in Côte d’Ivoire.

179. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

180. Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, “Foire aux Questions,” Audience Foraines, November 2007, http://www.audiencesforaines.gouv.ci/foire.php.

181. Présidence de la République de Côte d’Ivoire. Constitution De 2000. La Deuxieme Constitution. Loi N°2000-513 DU 1 er AOÛT 2000 Portant Constitution De La Côte D’ivoire. August 1, 2000. https://www.presidence.ci/constitution-de-2000/; Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, Constitution of 2000, https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cote_DIvoire_2000.

182. Ouattara betrayed Soro in the run-up to the 2020 election by altering the constitution to allow him to run for a third term.

183. “Côte d’Ivoire: The War Is Not Yet Over,” International Crisis Group Africa 72 (2003).

184. SAPA-AFP, “Ouattara Camp Urges Ivoirians to Help Take Government Sites,” Times Live, Africa, December 14, 2010, https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/africa/2010-12-14-ouattara-camp-urges-ivorians-to-help-take-government-sites/; “Thabo Mbeki Begins Côte d’Ivoire Mediation Mission,” BBC News, December 5, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11920739; “Ivoirian Rival Ouattara Tells Gbagbo to Leave,” BBC News, December 12, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11977920.

185. Nineteenth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

186. Cabinet du Premier Ministre, République de Côte d’Ivoire, “Communique du Porte-Parole.”

187. Nineteenth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

188. “Conseil des Ministres,” Gouvernement de Côte d’Ivoire.

189. “Côte d’Ivoire Presidential Elections October 31, 2010,” UNOCI, November 25, 2010, https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/past/unoci/documents/cote_d’ivoire_elections_round2_%20factsheet24112010.pdf.

190. Nineteenth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

191. Bah, “Democracy and Civil War,” 597–615.

192. Nineteenth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

193. “Concerned at Delay Plans in Côte d’Ivoire Elections, Security Council, in Presidential Statement, Urges Parties to Work for Poll by Spring 2009,” UN Security Council, November 7, 2008.

194. “Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on the Presidential Election in Côte d’Ivoire,” UN Secretary-General, December 3, 2010, https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2010-12-03/statement-attributable-spokesperson-secretary-general-presidential.

195. “Côte d’Ivoire: Amnesty Warns Over Rights Abuses,” BBC News, February 22, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12540968; “Côte d’Ivoire Government Takes Control of Foreign Banks,” BBC News, February 17, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12500544; “Côte d’Ivoire Cocoa Farmers Protest at EU Sanctions,” BBC News, February 17, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12497524.

196. “Côte d’Ivoire: Army and Ex-Rebels ‘Breach Ceasefire,’” BBC News, February 24, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12569372; “Côte d’Ivoire: Rebels Take Western Town Zouan-Hounien,” BBC News, February 25, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12582014; Imogen Foulkes, “Côte d’Ivoire: UN Warns of Forgotten Humanitarian Crisis,” BBC News, March 22, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12827243; “Ouattara’s Men Waiting to March on Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire,” BBC News, March 21, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12804613; “Côte d’Ivoire: Besieged Gbagbo ‘in Basement’ of Residence,” BBC News, April 5, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12967610.

197. See the Annex of the agreement.

198. Ian Spears, “Africa: The Limits of Power-Sharing,” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 3 (July 2002): 123–136.

199. “MINUCI: Background,” UN Peacekeeping; Geohive, “Côte d’Ivoire,” accessed January 10, 2024. https://peacekeeping.un.org/es/mission/past/minuci/background.html.

200. Côte d’Ivoire is administratively divided into nineteen regions. Each region is divided into administrative units referred to as departments. The administrative regions are divided according to the north-south regional divide, which is largely based on social, cultural, and economic distinction between the northern half and the southern half of the country.

201. There are a significant number of northern immigrant workers living among the Baoule plantation owners. See Thomas J. Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Cotê d’Ivoire 1880–1995 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Dwayne Woods, “The Tragedy of the Cocoa Pod: Rent-Seeking, Land and Ethnic Conflict in Côte d’Ivoire,” Journal of Modern African Studies 41, no. 4 (2003): 641–655.

202. “Category Archives: Côte d’Ivoire—African Review 2011,” World Elections, accessed October 14, 2023, http://welections.wordpress.com/category/cote-divoire/; “CEI,” Commission Electorale Indépendante de Côte d’Ivoire, accessed October 14, 2023, http://www.ceici.org/elections/ci/index.php.

203. “Category Archives,” World Elections; “CEI,” Commission Electorale Indépendante de Côte d’Ivoire.

204. John James, “Cocoa Farmers: A Mirror to Côte d’Ivoire’s Divisions,” BBC News, November 25, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/world-africa-11832982; “Ivory Coast Set for Presidential Election Run-Off,” BBC News, November 4, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11681134.

205. Bah, Breakdown and Reconstitution.

206. “Côte d’Ivoire: Odinga Makes Fresh AU Mediation Attempt,” BBC News, January 17, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12204139.

207. Bah, “TV Interview, Côte d’Ivoire Civil War, Prof. Abu Bakarr Bah,” Al Jazeera TV, August 12, 2022, YouTube video, 7:32, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQAMUE2hmqQ.

208. “Côte d’Ivoire: AU Panel of Leaders to Seek Way Forward,” BBC News, January 29, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12314022.

209. Compaoré was unable to join the other four presidents in Côte d’Ivoire due to security threats against him.

4. PEOPLE-CENTERED LIBERALISM AND INTERNATIONAL STATEBUILDING

1. Interview, policy specialist, UNDP, Monrovia, 2008.

2. Abu Bakarr Bah, “People-Centered Liberalism: An Alternative Approach to International Statebuilding in Sierra Leone and Liberia,” Critical Sociology 43, no. 7–8 (2017): 989–1007.

3. Bah, “People-Centered Liberalism,” 989–1007.

4. David K. Leonard and Scott Straus, Africa’s Stalled Development: International Causes and Cures (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003); Aristide R. Zolberg, One-Party Government in the Ivory Coast (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964); Robert H. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).

5. Economic Development Report 2011: Fostering Industrial Development in Africa in the New Global Environment, UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), New York, 2011; Patrick Conway, “IMF Lending Programs: Participation and Impact,” Journal of Development Economics 45, no. 2 (1994): 365–391; William Easterly, “What Did Structural Adjustment Adjust?: The Association of Policies and Growth with Repeated IMF and World Bank Adjustment Loans,” Journal of Development Economics 76, no. 1 (2005): 1–22; Fantu Cheru, The Silent Revolution in Africa: Debt, Development and Democracy (London: Zed, 1989); J. Barry Riddell, “Things Fall Apart Again: Structural Adjustment Programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 1 (1992): 53–68.

6. John A. Wiseman, The New Struggle for Democracy in Africa (Aldershot, UK: Avebury, 1996); Michael Bratton and Nicolas Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

7. Bah, “People-Centered Liberalism,” 989–1007; Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

8. David Williams and Tom Young, “Governance, the World Bank and Liberal Theory,” Political Studies 42, no. 1 (1994): 84–100; Carlos Santiso, “Good Governance and Aid Effectiveness: The World Bank and Conditionality,” Georgetown Public Policy Review 7, no. 1 (2001): 1–22; Graham Harrison, The World Bank and Africa: The Construction of Governance States (New York: Routledge, 2004); Ray Kiely, “Neoliberalism Revised? A Critical Account of the World Bank Concepts of Good Governance and Market Friendly Intervention,” Capital & Class 22, no. 1 (1998): 63–88.

9. Resolution 46/137, UN General Assembly, December 17, 1991; Resolution 44/146, UN General Assembly, December 15, 1989; Resolution 45/150, UN General Assembly, December 18, 1990; Resolution 1989/51, UN Commission on Human Rights, March 7, 1989.

10. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Resolution 2200A [XXI]), UN General Assembly, December 16, 1996; Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Resolution 3/217A), UN General Assembly, December 10, 1948.

11. United Nations General Assembly. Resolution 46/137. December 17, 1991.

12. UN General Assembly. Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Principle of Periodic and Genuine Elections UNGA 197; A/RES/46/137 (December 17, 1991). http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1991/197.pdf.

13. In 1994, UNEAU was renamed Electoral Assistance Division (EAD) and made a part of the UN Department of Political Affairs.

14. meUNDP and Electoral Assistance: Ten Years of Experience, UN Development Programme (UNDP), New York, November 15, 2015, https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/democratic-governance/electoral_systemsandprocesses/undp-and-electoral-assistance-10-years-of-experience.html, 1.

15. United Nations Millennium Declaration (Resolution 55/2), UN General Assembly, September 8, 2000.

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17. UN, “Official List of MDG Indicators,” Statistics Division, January 15, 2008, https://www.developmentgoals.org/About_the_goals.html.

18. “Positive Peace Report 2019: Analysing the Factors that Sustain Peace,” Institute for Economics and Peace, October 2019, https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/PPR-2019-web.pdf; Bah and Nikolas Emmanuel, “Positive Peace and the Methodology of Costing Peacebuilding Needs,” Administrative Theory & Praxis 43, no. 3 (2020): 299–318.

19. Bah, “People-Centered Liberalism,” 989–1007.

20. “Communiqué of the Interim Committee of the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund,” International Monetary Fund, press release no. 96/49, 1996.

21. “Good Governance: The IMF’s Role,” IMF, Washington, DC, 1997.

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28. Anand and Sen, “Human Development and Economic Sustainability,” 2029–2049; Taori, Sustainable Human Development; Hopwood, Mellor, and O’Brien, “Sustainable Development,” 38–52; Giddings, Hopwood, and O’Brien, “Environment, Economy, and Society,” 187–196; Elliot, An Introduction to Sustainable Development; Pick and Sirkin, Breaking the Poverty Cycle.

29. Anand and Sen, Sustainable Human Development, 4.

30. UNDP, Human Development Report 1996.

31. Anand and Sen, Sustainable Human Development, 4.

32. Anand and Sen, Sustainable Human Development, 2038.

33. Anand and Sen, Sustainable Human Development, 3–4.

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40. Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Congo (Dem. Rep. of), Ethiopia, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Benin, Congo Republic, Cameroon, Mauritania, Senegal, Zambia. See IMF, “The Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative.”

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47. Patrick Chabal, “The Quest for Good Government and Development in Africa: Is NEPAD the Answer?,” International Affairs 78, no. 3 (2002): 447–462; John K. Akokpari, “The AU, NEPAD, and the Promotion of Good Governance in Africa,” Nordic Journal of African Studies 13, no. 3 (2004): 243–263; ‘Kunle Amuwo, “Globalisation, Nepad and the Governance Question in Africa,” African Studies Quarterly 6, no. 3 (2002): 65–82; Charles Ukeje, “Rethinking Africa’s Security in the Age of Uncertain Globalisation: NEPAD and Human Security in the 21st Century,” Paper submitted to the 11th CODESRIA General Assembly, Maputo, MZ, 2005, 6–10.

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51. Roger Riddell, Aid in the 21st Century, ODS Discussion Paper Series 6, United Nations, New York, 1996; Deborah A. Bräutigam and Stephen Knack, “Foreign Aid, Institutions, and Governance in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 52, no. 2 (2004): 255–285; Todd Moss, Gunilla Pettersson, and Van de Walle, “An Aid-Institutions Paradox? A Review Essay on Aid Dependency and Statebuilding in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies, 2005; Howard White, ed., Aid and Macro-Economic Performance: Theory, Empirical Evidence and Four Country Cases (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998); Craig Burnside and David Dollar, “Aid, Policies and Growth,” American Economic Review 90, no. 4 (2000): 847–868; Peter S. Heller, “Pity the Finance Minister: Issues in Managing a Substantial Scaling Up of Aid Flows,” International Monetary Fund (Working Paper 05/180, 2005); Raghuram G. Rajan and Arvind Subramanian, “What Undermines Aid’s Impact on Growth?,” National Bureau of Economic Research (Working Paper 11657, 2005).

52. Riddell, Aid in the 21st Century; Paul Collier, “Aid ‘Dependency’: A Critique,” Journal of African Economies 8, no. 4 (1999): 528–545; Jeffrey Sachs and John W. McArthur, “Moyo’s Confused Attack on Aid for Africa,” HuffPost, May 27, 2009, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeffrey-sachs/moyos-confused-attack-on_b_208222.html.

53. Sachs and McArthur, “Moyo’s Confused Attack on Aid for Africa.”

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63. H.R. 434, US Congress; see section 102.

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76. Nilanjana Bhowmick, “India Pledges $5bn to Help African States Meet the MDGs,” The Guardian, May 25, 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/25/india-pledges-5bn-to-help-african-states-meet-mdgs.

77. Bhowmick, “India Pledges $5bn.”

78. Deborah Brautigam, “Chinese Development Aid in Africa: What, Where, Why, and How Much?,” in Rising China: Global Challenges and Opportunities, ed. Jane Golley and Ligang Song (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2011).

79. “China-Africa Development Fund,” China-Africa Development Fund, accessed October 17, 2023, http://en.cadfund.com; “China’s Policy Bank: China Development Bank—The Muscle behind China’s Global Expansion,” Thornhill Capital, April 1, 2013, http://thornhillcapital.info/featured-articles/chinas-policy-bank-china-development-bank-the-muscle-behind-chinas-global-expansion.

80. Brautigam, “Chinese Development Aid in Africa,” 211.

81. “China Pledges $10bn Africa Loans,” BBC News, November 8, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8349020.stm.

82. These include: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN General Assembly, December 10, 1948; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, UN General Assembly, December 16, 1996; Resolution 1989/51, UN Commission on Human Rights, March 7, 1989; Resolution 44/146, UN Commission on Human Rights, December 15, 1989; Resolution 46/137, UN General Assembly, December 17, 1991; For specific UN resolutions on elections, see “Political and Peacebuilding Affairs: Elections,” UN, accessed October 17, 2023, https://dppa.un.org/en/elections. See also “Law Reform,” United Republic of Tanzania; “Declaration on the Principles of Governing Democratic Elections in Africa AHG/Decl. 1 (XXXVIII),” Organization of African Unity/African Union, Durban, ZA, 2002.

83. Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971); Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1942); Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

84. Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections in Africa, OAU/AU.

85. Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections in Africa, OAU/AU, 2.

86. “Lomé Declaration of July 2000 on the Framework for an OAU Response to Unconstitutional Changes of Government (AHG/Decl.5 [XXXVI]),” Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, accessed November 3, 2023, https://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/compilation_democracy/lomedec.htm; African Charter on Democracy, Elections, and Government, African Union, Addis Ababa, January 30, 2007.

87. “Security Council Extends Ivory Coast Mission Until 24 June, With Intention to Renew for Further 7 Months,” UN Security Council, June 3, 2005; Thomas J. Bassett, “Winning Coalition, Sore Loser: Côte d’Ivoire’s 2010 Presidential Elections,” African Affairs 110, no. 440 (2011): 469–479.

88. Sierra Leone’s recently conducted general elections in 2023 were widely considered not to be credible. The opposition has rejected the official results of the presidential election and is refusing to participate in any part of the government. International observers have also expressed doubts about the credibility of the elections. See Abdul R. Thomas, “President Bio Throws Insults at Britain, USA, Germany, Ireland and the EU over Rigged Election Results,” Sierra Leone Telegraph, July 5, 2023, https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/president-bio-throws-insults-at-britain-usa-germany-ireland-and-the-eu-over-rigged-election-results/.

89. The UN was actually given the role of supervising the 2010 Ivoirian presidential election. “The Priority Is Economic Recovery,” Africa Renewal, October 3, 2011, https://www.un.org/africarenewal/web-features/%E2%80%98-priority-economic-recovery%E2%80%99.

90. Interview, assistant professor with the University of Liberia, Monrovia, 2008.

91. Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Principle of Periodic and Genuine Elections—Report of the Secretary-General (A/49/675), UN General Assembly, November 17, 1994.

92. Enhancing the Effectiveness, UN General Assembly.

93. Y. J. Choi, SRSG, and UNOCI, “Statement of the Certification of the Result of the Second Round of the Presidential Election Held on 28 November 2010,” United Nations, December 3, 2010; Resolution 1721, UN Security Council, November 1, 2006 ; Resolution 1765, UN Security Council, July 16, 2007.

94. “Elections Unit,” African Union, accessed October 17, 2023, https://au.int/en/elections; Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections in Africa, OAU/AU.

95. “Elections Unit,” African Union.

96. Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic Elections in Africa, OAU/AU, 5.

97. The definitions of poverty in each of the three countries are consistent with the MDG definition of poverty: consumption of less than USD 1 per day for extreme poverty and consumption of less than USD 2 per day for poverty.

98. PRSP, 4; $1 = 447.81 CFA francs in 2008.

99. Sierra Leone’s PRSP I, 56–57.

100. Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, country report no. 08/219, 2008, 25.

101. Sierra Leone’s PRSP I, 109.

102. Sierra Leone’s PRSP I, 78.

103. Sierra Leone’s PRSP I, 108.

104. Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, 41.

105. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, country report no. 09/156, 2009, 85.

106. Côte d’Ivoire’s PRSP, 86.

107. Côte d’Ivoire’s PRSP, 86.

108. Côte d’Ivoire’s PRSP, 86.

109. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, 85.

110. Richard Banegas, “Post-election Crisis in Côte d’Ivoire: The Gbonhi War,” African Affairs 110, no. 440 (2011): 457–468; Straus, “‘It’s Sheer Horror Here’: Patterns of Violence during the First Four Months of Côte d’Ivoire’s Post-electoral Crisis,” African Affairs 110, no. 440 (2011): 481–489.

111. Bassett, “Winning Coalition, Sore Loser,” 469–470.

112. Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, 53.

113. Miranda Gaanderse and Kristen Valasek, eds., The Security Sector and Gender in West Africa: A Survey of Police, Defense, Justice and Penal Services in ECOWAS States (Geneva: DCAF, 2011).

114. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002). https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2016/12/31/Sierra-Leone-Poverty-Reduction-Strategy-Paper-18313, 112.

115. Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, 84.

116. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002). https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2016/12/31/Sierra-Leone-Poverty-Reduction-Strategy-Paper-18313, 113.

117. Côte d’Ivoire’s PRSP, 138.

118. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002). https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2016/12/31/Sierra-Leone-Poverty-Reduction-Strategy-Paper-18313, 127.

119. 62 percent toward pillar four in Liberia, 52 percent toward outcome three in Côte d’Ivoire, and 31.7 percent toward pillar three in Sierra Leone.

120. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 122.

121. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, vi.

122. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 125–129.

123. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 131.

124. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 134.

125. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 137.

126. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 114.

127. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 114.

128. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002). https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2016/12/31/Sierra-Leone-Poverty-Reduction-Strategy-Paper-18313, 94.

129. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 105.

130. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 105.

131. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002), 123–124.

132. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 104.

133. Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, 22.

134. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 33.

135. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002)., 123.

136. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 103.

137. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 103.

138. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 73–76.

139. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009. Figure aggregated from the figures on the table on page 108.

140. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 109.

141. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002)., 121.

142. Interview, official, Network of Education and Peace Caretakers, Abidjan, 2008.

143. Pillar one, $585.6 million (34.2%); pillar two, $588 million (34.3%); and pillar three, $543.5 million (31.7%)—total: USD 1,786,700,000.

144. International Monetary Fund. Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. June 10, 2005 (stock no. 1SLEEA2005002)., vx; Also see “IMF Approves in Principle US$169 Million Three-Year PRGF Arrangement for Sierra Leone,” IMF, press release no. 01/39, 2001; “IMF Executive Board Completes Sixth and Final Review Under Sierra Leone’s PRGF Arrangement and Approves US$20.8 Million Disbursement,” IMF, press release no. 05/130, 2005.

145. Republic of Sierra Leone. Agenda for Change: Second Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP II), 2008-2012, Freetown, June 2008, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-05/agenda_for_change.pdf, 5.

146. Republic of Sierra Leone. Agenda for Change: Second Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP II), 2008-2012, Freetown, June 2008, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-05/agenda_for_change.pdf, 127.

147. Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, IMF, 136.

148. 472.19 CFA francs = USD 1 in 2009. See International Financial Statistics Yearbook, 2011, IMF, International Financial Statistics, July 19, 2011, 255. (17,645.05 billion CFA francs is the same as 17.645 trillion CFA francs; 2,518.55 billion CFA francs is the same as 2.518 trillion CFA francs.).

149. International Monetary Fund. Côte d’Ivoire: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Country report no. 09/156, 2009, 145–149.

150. “472.19 CFA francs = USD 1 in 2009.” See International Financial Statistics Yearbook, 2011, IMF, 255.

151. “IMF and World Bank Support Sierra Leone’s Completion Point under the Enhanced HIPC Initiative and Approve Debt Relief under the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative,” IMF, press release no. 06/286, 2006.

152. “Liberia Qualifies for Complete Debt Relief under HIPC Initiative,” World Bank, June 29, 2010, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2010/06/29/liberia-qualifies-for-complete-debt-relief-under-hipc-initiative.

153. “Liberia Hails $1.2bn Debt Pardon by Paris Club,” BBC News, September 17, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11341667.

154. “US Cancels Liberia’s $391m Debt,” BBC News, February 13, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6358665.stm; “Liberia’s US$194.1 Million Debt Cancelled by Japan,” Shout-Africa, March 11, 2011, http://www.shout-africa.com/news/liberia%E2%80%99s-us194-1-millin-debt-cancelled-by-japan/; Devex, “Germany Cancels Liberia’s Debts,” Newswire Newsletter, February 15, 2007, https://www.devex.com/news/germany-cancels-liberia-s-debts-50223.

155. “IMF and World Bank Announce More Than US$4 Billion in Debt Relief for Côte d’Ivoire,” World Bank, June 26, 2012, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2012/06/26/imf-world-bank-announce-more-than-4-billion-debt-relief-cote-divoire; “Côte d’Ivoire Reaches Decision Point Under the Enhanced HIPC Debt Relief Initiative,” IMF, press release no. 09/104, 2009; “Debt Relief Under Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative,” IMF.

156. Sierra Leone—Country Assistance Strategy for the Period FY2006-2009 (Report no. 31793-SL), World Bank, May 5, 2005; Sierra Leone—Joint Country Assistance Strategy for the Period FY10-FY13 (Report no. 52297-SL), World Bank, March 4, 2010.

157. Sierra Leone—Country Assistance, World Bank, 9.

158. Sierra Leone—Country Assistance, World Bank, 9.

159. Sierra Leone—Country Assistance, World Bank, 14.

160. Sierra Leone—Joint Country Assistance, World Bank, 4.

161. Liberia—Joint Country Assistance Strategy for the Period FY09-FY11 (Report no. 47928-LR), World Bank, March 31, 2009.

162. Liberia—Joint Country Assistance, World Bank, 23.

163. Liberia—Joint Country Assistance, World Bank, 36.

164. Côte d’Ivoire—Country Partnership Strategy for the Period FY10-FY13 (Report no. 53666-CI), World Bank, April 1, 2010.

165. Côte d’Ivoire—Country Partnership Strategy, World Bank, 19–20.

166. Bah and Emmanuel, “Positive Peace and the Methodology of Costing Peacebuilding Needs,” 299–318.

5. POSTWAR INSTITUTIONAL REFORMS

1. Abu Bakarr Bah, “The Contours of New Humanitarianism: War and Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone,” Africa Today 60, no. 1 (2013): 3–26; Bah and Nikolas Emmanuel, “Positive Peace and the Methodology of Costing Peacebuilding Needs,” Administrative Theory & Praxis 43, no. 3 (2020): 299–318.

2. Final Report of the Group of Experts on Côte d’Ivoire Pursuant to Paragraph 19 of Security Council Resolution 2101 (2013), United Nations Security Council, April 14, 2014, para. 9.

3. John M Mbaku, “African Elections in 2015: A Snapshot for Côte d’Ivoire, Tanzania, Burkina Faso and Sudan,” in Foresight Africa: Top Priorities for the Continent in 2015, ed. Africa Growth Initiative (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2015).

4. Lisa Denney, Justice and Security Reform: Development Agencies and Informal Institutions in Sierra Leone (New York: Routledge, 2014).

5. Kenneth W. Kemp and Charles Hudlin, “Civil Supremacy over the Military: Its Nature and Limits,” Armed Forces and Society 19, no. 1 (1992): 7–26.

6. Osman Gbla, “Security Sector Reform Under International Tutelage in Sierra Leone,” International Peacekeeping 13, no. 1 (2006): 78–93; Gbla, “Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone,” in Monograph 135: Challenges to Security Sector Reform in the Horn of Africa, ed. Yemane Kidane and Len le Roux (Pretoria, ZA: Institute for Security Studies, 2007); Denney, Justice and Security Reform.

7. “The Military Mission in Sierra Leone,” Reuters, May 30, 2007, http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKL3070034720070530; Mark Malan, “Security and Military Reform,” Monograph 80: Sierra Leone: Building the Road to Recovery (Pretoria, ZA: Institute for Security Studies, 2010); Malan, Phenyo Rekate, and Angela McIntyre, Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone: UNAMSIL Hits the Home Straight, Institute for Security Studies (January 1, 2002); Al-Hassan K. Kondeh, “Formulating Sierre Leone’s Defence White Paper,” in Security System Transformation in Sierra Leone, 1997–2007, ed. Paul Jackson and Peter Albrecht (London: International Alert, 2008); “Overseas Deployment: Africa,” British Army, 2010, https://www.medal-medaille.com/sold/product_info.php?products_id=8542.

8. “The Military Mission in Sierra Leone.”

9. International Monetary Fund. Republic of Sierra Leone. Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Freetown, June 2001, https://www.imf.org/external/np/prsp/2001/sle/01/063101.pdf.

10. Malan, Rekate, and McIntyre, Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone.

11. Malan, Rekate, and McIntyre, Peacekeeping in Sierra Leone.

12. Kondeh, “Formulating Sierra Leone’s Defence.”

13. Rick Shearn, “In Sierra Leone—IMATT to ISAT,” Sierra Express Media, March 29, 2013, https://sierraexpressmedia.com/?p=54524; “Report of the Visit of the Peacebuilding Commission to Sierra Leone,” UN, February 15–20, 2013, https://www.un.org/peacebuilding/content/report-visit-peacebuilding-commission-sierra-leone; Brian Jones, “Graduation—The End and Beginning of a Journey,” Foreign and Commonwealth Office, October 8, 2013, http://blogs.fco.gov.uk/ukinsierraleone/2013/10/08/graduation-the-end-and-beginning-of-a-journey.

14. “Mission in Liberia,” UN, accessed December 20, 2023 https://unmil.unmissions.org/.

15. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2012). Note the prewar troop level of AFL was six thousand soldiers. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia: Mixed Results from Humble Beginnings (Carlisle, PA: US Army Strategic Studies Institute, 2008).

16. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Liberia, August 15, 2014, UN Security Council.

17. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

18. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012.

19. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012; Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

20. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

21. International Monetary Fund, Liberia: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, (Washington, DC: IMF, 2008).

22. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

23. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012.

24. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

25. Twentieth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Liberia, UN Security Council, February 17, 2010.

26. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

27. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

28. Twenty-First Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Liberia, UN Security Council, August 11, 2010.

29. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

30. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

31. “UNMIL Fact Sheet,” United Nations, accessed October 14, 2023, https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmil.

32. Thirty-Fourth Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire, UN Security Council, May 15, 2014.

33. Thirty-Fourth Report, UN Security Council.

34. Thirty-Fourth Report, UN Security Council.

35. Thirty-Fourth Report, UN Security Council.

36. Final Report of the Group of Experts, UN Security Council, para. 9.

37. Final Report of the Group of Experts, UN Security Council, para. 9.

38. Final Report of the Group of Experts, UN Security Council, para. 43.

39. Final Report of the Group of Experts, UN Security Council, para. 279–280.

40. Joseph P. C. Charley and Freida I. M’Cormack, Becoming and Remaining a ‘Force for Good’—Reforming the Police in Post-conflict Sierra Leone (Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies, 2011).

41. Bruce Baker, “Sierra Leone Police Reform: The Role of the UK Government,” Grips Policy Research Center, 2010.

42. “Justice Sector Development Programme (GB-1-104594),” Department for International Development, accessed January 9, 2024, https://devtracker.fcdo.gov.uk/projects/GB-1-104594/summary#.

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45. Peter Albrecht, Olushegu Garber, Ade Gibson, and Sophy Thomas, Community Policing in Sierra Leone—Local Policing Partnership Boards (Copenhagen, DK: Danish Institute for International Studies, 2014).

46. Guidelines on SGBV Case Management: A Reference Handbook for the FSU, UN Development Programme, Freetown, SL.

47. Annual Crime Management Statistical Report for January-December, 2012, Sierra Leone Police, Freetown, SL, 2012.

48. Rita Abrahamsen and Michael Williams, The Globalisation of Private Security. Country Report: Sierra Leone (Aberystwyth: University of Wales, 2005).

49. Baker, “Sierra Leone Police Reform,” 7, 12.

50. The 2023 election falls a bit out of the scope of the study, as this work had been completed. However, the violence that emerged during the 2023 election seems to be a continuation of a pattern that started during the 2017 election.

51. “Ahead of Elections, Sierra Leone Focuses on Mitigating Political Violence Election Security, All Electoral Integrity and Transparency,” International Foundation for Electoral Systems, January 17, 2012, http://www.ifes.org/Content/Publications/News-in-Brief/2012/Jan/Ahead-of-Elections-Sierra-Leone-Focuses-on-Mitigating-Political-Violence.aspx; Daou, Awa Faye. “Sierra Leone: an election without violence.” Institute for Security Studies, ISS Today, February 27, 2013, https://issafrica.org/iss-today/sierra-leone-an-election-without-violence.

52. Abdul R. Thomas, “Dr Sylvia Blyden Arrested as US Government Signs Multi-Million Dollar Grant Aid with President Bio,” Sierra Leone Telegraph, December 16, 2020, https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/dr-sylvia-blyden-arrested-as-us-government-signs-multi-million-dollar-grant-aid-with-president-bio/; Thomas, “The Palo Conteh Treason Trial—Lesson Learnt,” Sierra Leone Telegraph, July 5, 2020, https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/the-palo-conteh-treason-trial-lesson-learnt/.

53. “Curfew in Sierra Leone Town after Rioting, Shooting over Ebola Case,” Reuters, October 21, 2014, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-ebola-leone/curfew-in-sierra-leone-town-after-rioting-shooting-over-ebola-case-idUSKCN0IA2AY20141021.

54. Valerie Brender, “No Money, No Justice”: Police Corruption and Abuse in Liberia (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2013).

55. Winston P. Parley, “LNP, Much Expected,” New Dawn[Liberia], June 10, 2011.

56. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

57. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

58. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

59. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

60. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

61. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

62. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

63. Twenty-Eighth Progress Report, UN Security Council.

64. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012.

65. Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

66. Malan, Security Sector Reform in Liberia.

67. Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

68. Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

69. Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

70. Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

71. Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

72. New Dawn, “Liberia: Police Boss Marc Amblard Sacked,” allAfrica, November 28, 2011, http://allafrica.com/stories/201111280821.html; Brender, “No Money, No Justice.”

73. UN Security Council, Twenty-Eighth Progress Report.

74. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2008, (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2008).

75. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2008.

76. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012.

77. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2012.

78. Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Sierra Leone, Witness to Truth: Report of the Sierra Leone Truth & Reconciliation Commission, vol. 1 (2004), 27, accessed November 3, 2023, https://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-the-final-report.

79. Interview, member of RUF and the Promoters of Peace and Justice, Freetown, 2008.

80. Rosalind Shaw, Rethinking Truth and Reconciliation Commissions: Lessons from Sierra Leone (Special Report No. 130) (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2005), 3.

81. Shaw, 9.

82. Interview, Bishop Joseph Humper, chair of the Sierra Leonean Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Freetown, 2008.

83. TRC, Witness to Truth, vol. 3, 3.

84. TRC, Witness to Truth, vol. 2, 124.

85. TRC, Witness to Truth, vol. 2, 117.

86. TRC, Witness to Truth, vol. 2, 117.

87. Tim Kelsall, “Truth, Lies, Ritual: Preliminary Reflections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Sierra Leone,” Human Rights Quarterly 27, no. 2 (2005): 361–391, 363.

88. Kelsall, “Truth, Lies, Ritual,” 363.

89. Shaw, “Memory Frictions: Localizing the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Sierra Leone,” International Journal of Transitional Justice 1, no. 2 (2007): 183–207.

90. TRC, Witness to Truth, app. 3, part 1, 95.

91. Christopher J. Colvin, “‘Brothers and Sisters, Do Not Be Afraid of Me’: Trauma, History and the Therapeutic Imagination in the New South Africa,” in Contested Pasts: The Politics of Memory, ed. Katharine Hodgkin and Susannah Radstone (New York: Routledge, 2003); Mahmood Mamdani, “Amnesty or Impunity? A Preliminary Critique of the Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (TRC),” Diacritics 32, no. 3 (2002): 32–59; Jacobus A. Du Pisani and Kwang-Su Kim, “Establishing the Truth about the Apartheid Past: Historians and the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission,” African Studies Quarterly 8, no. 1 (2004): 77–95; Allison Corey and Sandra F. Joireman, “Retributive Justice: The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda,” African Affairs 103, no. 410 (2004): 73–89; Peter Uvin and Charles Mironko, “Western and Local Approaches to Justice in Rwanda,” Global Governance 9 (2003): 219–231; Jacques Fierens, “Gacaca Courts: Between Fantasy and Reality,” Journal of International Criminal Justice 3, no. 4 (2005): 896–919.

92. “Home Page,” Fambul Tok, accessed January 9, 2024, http://www.fambultok.org.

93. Richard Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the Post-apartheid State (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Hein Marais, South Africa: Limits to Change: The Political Economy of Transition (New York: Zed, 2001).

94. Bah, “People-Centered Liberalism: An Alternative Approach to International Statebuilding in Sierra Leone and Liberia,” Critical Sociology 43, no. 7–8 (2017): 989–1007.

95. “War-Wounded Get Micro-Grants,” New Humanitarian, November 12, 2009, http://www.irinnews.org/report/87007/sierra-leone-war-wounded-get-micro-grants.

96. Aruna Turay, “In Sierra Leone, NaCSA Certifies Female War Victims,” Awareness Times, [Sierra Leone] March 17, 2011.

97. Sanusi Savage and Paul K. Kargbo, “Sierra Leone Conflict Victims Receive Reparations,” International Organization for Migration, October 4, 2013, https://www.iom.int/news/sierra-leone-conflict-victims-receive-reparations.

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99. Human Rights Commission of Sierra Leone Act of 2004, Government of Sierra Leone, August 20, 2004.

100. TRC of Liberia mandate enacted on May 12, 2005, by the National Transitional Legislative Assembly. The TRC mandate is the act that established the TRC of Liberia.

101. TRC, Final Report, vol. 2, Consolidated Final Report, xxiv.

102. TRC, Final Report, xxiv.

103. TRC, Final Report, 16.

104. TRC, Final Report, 378.

105. TRC, Final Report.

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6. CONCLUSION

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4. Kumar, Rebuilding Societies After Civil War; Marrack Goulding, “The United Nations and Conflict in Africa since the Cold War,” African Affairs 98, no. 391 (1999): 155–166; Mehler, “Peace and Power Sharing in Africa: A Not so Obvious Relationship,” African Affairs 108, no. 432 (2009): 453–473.

5. Thomas Carothers, “The ‘Sequencing’ Fallacy,” Journal of Democracy 18 (2007): 12–27.

6. United Nations (UN), “UN Peace-Building: An Orientation,” New York, 2010.

7. Abu Bakarr Bah and Nikolas Emmanuel, “Positive Peace and the Methodology of Costing Peacebuilding Needs: The Case of Burundi,” Administrative Theory & Praxis 43, no. 3 (2020): 299–318.

8. David Chandler, “Peacebuilding as Statebuilding,” in Peacebuilding: The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1997–2017, ed. David Chandler, 69–94 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017); Bah, ed., International Security and Peacebuilding: Africa, the Middle East, and Europe (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2017).

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