VI

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SIGNIFIER AND SIGNIFIED

MOTIVATION

Motivation and conventionality

I now return to the question of motivation⁷ and conventionality partially dealt with from an intercultural viewpoint (Chapter 2, Cultural and iconic nature of gesture) and an analogical one (Chapter 5, Conventionality). Common sense indicates that a gestural sign is motivated when it refers to something concrete, as with mimic gestures, and that it is conventional when it illustrates an abstract notion or a cliché. In fact, a gesture is conventional even when it refers to something concrete. While the principle of mimicry is universal, the mimed elements may not be obvious. The catalogue of mimic gestures is specific to a given culture. This is true for several reasons: physical activities differ, some concrete referents are unique to certain cultures, and the selection of relevant features of a given common activity or notion differs from one group to another. Conventionality is linked to particular choices on the level of the reality signified, whether concrete or psychological, on the level of the signifying gesture, and in the relationship between these two facets of the sign. Different choices on one or other of these levels—(a) reality, (b) gesture, (c) relationship established between the two—explain errors and misinterpretations, but the principle of analogy sometimes allows one to determine the original and culture-specific choice.

(a) Gesturally inviting someone to sit down differs depending on whether there is a seat or not. In France, one indicates the seat while in Africa, for example in the film Ceddo by Sembène Ousmane, one person invites an other to sit on the ground by lowering a palm toward the ground several times.

(b) We have seen that for a drink, the French have the choice between the container (hand closed around an imaginary glass) and the contents (thumb-liquid poured into the mouth). A Hungarian has no choice: he evokes a drink with the image of a glass.

(c) How does one express exasperation or weariness in France and in Greece? The gestures differ while the physical motivation is the same. A person may be denigrated by being assimilated with a temperature that is ‘hard to bear.’ In both countries, this may be expressed by cooling oneself: in France, by blowing while lifting the eyes and smirking; in Greece, by energetically shaking one’s lapel while lifting the head and whistling lightly (Papas 1972: 57).

Gestures are always motivated even when their referents are abstract. Generally, the psychological domain is expressed by the physical world from which it comes (Calbris 1985b). The principle is the same for gestures and facial expressions and involves metaphor. But a reflex can only be mimed. Naturally, one passes from physical signification to psychological signification through psychosomatic symptoms. The conventional gesture for a psychological state is linked with the physical reaction of an indicated emotion, localized on the body. A mimetic gesture may be a reproduction, a sketch, an indication, or a symbol of the physical reality which it expresses. Upon analysis, the gesture is always found to be mimetic and conventional, even in its concrete representation, and motivated even in its abstract representation.

Motivation and isomorphism

Here we are concerned with the correspondence between the signifier and signified as evidenced by the existence of analogous relationships on both levels. The parallelism in phenomena—reduction or reinforcement, contrast, shifting—observed on the physical and semantic levels confirms the strength of the physico-semantic link.

Parallel reduction or reinforcement

THREAT-WARNING.The parallel attenuation in the signifier and signified in this case is so progressive as to admit of four degrees. As the signified threat weakens, a shift occurs from the real threat of a spanking or slap to a threatening warning, then to a simple warning, and thence to advice or a condition set down. The signifier of threat decreases in parallel: the hand, shaken at first, then simply raised, is replaced by the forefinger, shaken, or raised (Illustrations 11–14).

Illustrations 11–14. Threat. Threatening warning. Warning. Advice. Illustrations by Zaü for Calbris and Montredon 1986: 36–37, by permission of CLE International

(1) Shaking a hand * shows a threat, literally and figuratively: *You’ll get a spanking when you get back, you’ll see.—* You’ve got to be wary of anarchists, to know if they’re out for something.

(2) The hand is raised * as if ready to slap: *And that’s why I’m telling you, * watch out.—* Be careful, he told me.

(3) The forefinger shaken sagittally or diagonally * in a sign of warning appears either as a reduced threat or as a repeated indication. This sign is at the midpoint between the two extremes, on both the level of the signifier and that of the signified. Amused, the threat is attenuated: it is the forefinger, less ‘striking’ than the palm, which is shaken. Or what better way to insist on a piece of advice than by gesturally repeating the important information carried by the raised forefinger? * It’s unthinkable to let Socialism be questioned.—The Champs Elysées is very dangerous at night; * watch out.

(4) With the forefinger simply raised *, we move from warning (* Look out, because Martine * doesn’t kid around) to an important recommendation which becomes an instruction (* And if you need anything, call me.—* But especially, bargain!) itself reduced to a condition set forth (All right, * on the condition that no one know).

OUTWARD OPPOSITION.The palm is raised to push back physically, to stop something or someone and to protect oneself (Chapter 6, Single motivation: semantic shifts). The extent of the physically opposed surface appears to be proportional to the strength of the opposition or selfprotection symbolized (Figure 11).

Raising two hands in front of oneself shows a clear concern for self-protection in the refusal of responsibility (I don’t know, ** I take no stance on the death penalty). Here, the gesture is necessarily symmetric. It is optionally so to insist on self-protection (Did you see * how careful I was), refusal, stopping, requesting a break or negation, where it is doubled for greater opposition. Several variants exist to depict incomplete opposition or negation that is not outright. It seems that the negative implication of Ça . . . ! (lit. That = As for that. . .) is somehow contained in the cupped palm lifted outward. It implies, among other things, denigration, ignorance. As a partial opposition, restriction presents the significant variant of the palm in an oblique plane, raised partially outward (symmetric **): Let’s look at the press in foreign capitals, ** in three of them anyway. Another possibility for attenuating: instead of adjusting the angle, reduce the opposing surface further by raising only one finger, the forefinger, in another common sign of restriction (With me you will fill your mind, * without tiring yourself out). As the indicator finger, the forefinger opposes in order to specify (*Excuse me, but that was not the same thing), while the thumb, the power digit, is raised outward to request a ‘time out,’ in French: *Pouce!

Figure 11 - Parallel attenuation in the signifier and signified: Opposition to the outside.

Parallel contrast

We distinguish the distant past, ‘Years ago!’, from the recent past, ‘Last week.’ One is evoked by the hand and/or head raised high backward, referring to a place far behind oneself; the other is evoked by rapidly pointing the thumb and/or turning the head over one’s shoulder, designating a point right behind oneself (Chapter 4, Past). The contrast distant/recent past is rendered by a large/small distance and an ample/reduced, slow/fast movement of a body segment, and for the case of the hand, in whole/in part. The same physical contrast also distinguishes two unfinished lists: ‘Not to mention the rest!’ from ‘And company. . . .’ The exclamation illustrating a very long list—‘Not to mention the rest!’—physically merges with the exclamation depicting a great distance in time: ‘It’s as old as the hills!’

Here is another example, taken from curved movements. In going around something, one encircles or encloses it. The circle thus represents the act of revolving around something, the internal nature of something, or enclosure. Each of these three notions presents nuances expressed by a contrast between the horizontal and vertical planes, each implying in its own way an opposition between earth and sky. The concrete versus abstract meanings in the act of turning are associated with a circle depicted on the ground and with a vertical circle, respectively. Moreover, with respect to the internal or closed nature of something, there is a contrast between a static quality, closed in on itself (horizontal circle), and a dynamic quality, an internal movement, which seems to be inspired by the movement of celestial bodies (vertical circle). Depending on whether the statement underlines one or other aspect, autonomous or dynamic for example, the speaker chooses the horizontal or vertical plane.

‘TOURNER AUTOUR’ (revolve around).Let us consider the case of a problem which ‘revolves around’ something. It is symbolized

INTERNAL NATURE. The internal, intimate nature derived from the ‘circle’ of friends around a person is depicted by a horizontal circle:

CLOSED ACTION. The same nuance is maintained when one goes from the notion of interior to that of confinement. For example, during an interview, a philosopher speaking of enclosure unconsciously makes a distinction between

In short, whether the notion is of revolving around, enclosing, or moving around within, a nuance of self-enclosure or the etymological reference to the earth seems to impose the ground as a reference, while a dynamic component is inspired by celestial movement.

Parallel shift

TRANSFORMATION. Consider the passage from the notion of condensation or concentration to that of punctiliousness, precision, or perfection (Figure 12: 1-6). To condense is to compress, to reduce to a smaller volume, and figuratively, to reduce, to compact the expression of thought. This may be depicted by bringing the facing palms closer together *¹ to propose the condensed version of a thesis, for example. It may also be depicted by joining the fingers of both hands, reducing the volume between the hands *², or by clustering the fingers of one hand together *³: I said to myself, that’s exactly *³ the concentrated, condensed phenomenon.

Figure 12 - Parallel shift in signifier and signified.

The limit of condensation or concentration is the reduction to a point. In fact the same gesture—clustering the fingers of one hand with the tips pointing upward, downward, or outward *⁴—is associated with the notions of precision, specificity, and isolated events. Here are some examples: What did you come here to see *⁴ exactly?—We are in a case where there are *⁴ very precise sources of funding.—There can be *⁴ more specific ways. . . .—I say this because it’s happened to me *⁴ at certain times. The analogy is no longer in the reduction of the volume enclosed by the hand, but in the joining of fingertips, forming a point. Note that ‘specific’ is said of a thing or class having its own laws. It indicates an autonomous element, a particular unity depicted by a circle (an autonomous whole) reduced to a point (particularity).

Precision, fineness, and meticulousness are even better illustrated by pinching two fingers together *⁵, rather than five. The natural pincer of the thumb and forefinger is perfectly made for holding something thin, delicate, minute, or miniscule. The examples are too numerous to give here. The gesture especially precedes the adjectives ‘precise,’ ‘clear-cut,’ ‘exact,’ ‘rigorous,’ or the corresponding adverbs, as well as negative expressions synonymous with ‘not the slightest,’ ‘absolutely nothing,’ ‘none,’ ‘no one.’

Exactness and precision are positive qualities associated with perfection. The latter is therefore also represented by joining the tips, or better, the nails of the thumb and forefinger; these are no longer pinched but joined in a ring *⁶ to form a circle, the image of perfection, and hence admiration: *⁶ A very clean piece of work.—René Clair has had *⁶ his first big success.—*⁶ Perfect, I tell you.

EXTENSION.For curved movements, the shift from one signifier to another involves the extension of an arc to one loop and then to several circles. The forward arc becomes a series of forward loops (progressive), the backward arc a series of backward loops (regressive).

The vertical loop * (Figure 13), as an indirect link between two things, represents mediation (I got news * through X). We move progressively from transmission (He is glad * to pass the tools of his trade on to his son) through the means of transmitting or prompting (He gives one idea, * and that brings in another) to the idea of linked succession. This latter is depicted with several vertical loops that evoke a chain of events (Therefore, * that risks setting in motion a chain reaction) or suggest a relay (Will * someone take up where you leave off?). The notion of linked succession is close to that of a mechanism. The latter involves the interlocking of transmission elements: The hands interweave in a circular movement * (When you’re * caught in the mechanism, you’ve got to go on).

Time may be alluded to in several ways (Chapter 4, Time). Let us reconsider it from the point of view of repetition: a forward arc, into the future, depicts the ‘next time’ or ‘doing over’; the beginning of a second circle depicts ‘one more time’ or ‘doing again’; and several vertical circles depict a cyclic and continual nature, i.e., habit. Perpetuity seems to require the interweaving of both hands in the same circle, while for uninterrupted renewal it seems that repeating a circle on itself with one hand is preferred.

For regressive unfolding, which is also polysemous, we again find the same shift from one signified to another through the addition of one or more circles depicting a path covered. A backward arc *¹ depicts anteriority or returning toward oneself, hence evoking interiority or assimilation. Extending this arc into an unfolding *², which depicts a temporal or internal path, modulates each of the signifieds (Figure 14). Anteriority becomes greater: I had told you *¹ the year before→ I come from a family *² (hand raised high behind the head) of lawyers (implying several generations of them). A single backward loop becomes a ‘return to the source,’ a return to the origins: The French press *¹ is coming back to this summit meeting at Maastricht → I think we may have to *² go farther back in history.—You know that legitimate defense bodies *² were born out of the instinct for private revenge. The inward arc depicting interiority (But out of *¹ his own humiliation, *¹ his body, *¹ his flesh . . .) becomes an interior journey. The circular movement of returning inward *² is performed near the forehead, the seat of thought, and near the nose, the symbol of intuition. It illustrates the evolution of thought, or more precisely a hypothesis, a conjecture, or suspicion: *² Couldn’t it be this Joseph . . . ? In the same way, if an inward arc can depict assimilation (The author fed that *¹ through his personal filter), its extension into circles represents the time necessary to assimilate something learned, for example. Thus, this unfolding movement representative of time distinguishes distant anteriority from plain anteriority, distant origin from the simple notion of return, and interior evolution from the idea of interiority.

Figure 13.

Figure 14 - Parallel extension of the signifier and signified.

Motivation and variants

The comparison of variants brings out the relationship between the signifier and the signified. Variants concern the diverse, hierarchically organized features of a gesture:

• direction

• with or without repetition

• vehicle: arm, hand(s), digit(s), head, part(s) of the face

• plane: horizontal or vertical (sagittal or frontal)

• position: direction of fingers, prone or supine hand

One observes neutralization and substitution between two or more vehicles for a given movement, between a single movement and a repeated movement for a given vehicle, between the planes in which a given gesture is performed. These permutations between features introduce nuances linked with one of the physico-semantic characteristics of the feature, whether it be a vehicle or a plane. These characteristics are deduced from other signs of which the feature in question is a component.

Body segment

Table 23 gives a comparative synthesis of substitutes according to their signifying direction (up, down, front, back, etc.). It shows substitutions:

• between four vehicles: the head, hand, forefinger, and thumb are used indifferently to localize spatially or temporally, to designate concretely or abstractly (localization and designation), or to mime movements in various directions. Each carries a nuance however.

• between three vehicles: the head, hand, and thumb refer to a position behind, and in doing so evoke numerous signifieds. Of two head movements, one is equivalent to a hand movement, the other to a thumb movement.

• between two vehicles: the head or hand (vertical axis of Table 23) can be substituted one for the other for an upward movement, a sign of augmentative exclamation (depicting accumulation); for an ample backward movement referring to the distant past, i.e., to an imaginary point situated far behind oneself; for a sideward movement indicating a parenthetical comment for example; for a lateral tipping of the head, situating an anterior event on the left, a posterior event on the right; for a transverse movement, the sign of several signifieds such as totality and perfection, certainty, negation, and ending. It is obvious that while a head movement may be superposed on a hand movement, a movement of the fingers may not. The consequence of this appears in Figure 15. Substituting the thumb or forefinger for the hand, or the thumb for the forefinger, introduces semantic nuances (base of the trihedron), whereas substituting the head for any of these elements introduces nuances of style which do not change the meaning of the message (tip of the trihedron). A head movement alone is more discreet, and the head may take the place of an upper body segment whose movement is impossible or avoided for some reason or other. Situated at different levels of the body, these mutually substitutable elements are often superposed to strengthen the expression.

Table 23. Substitutions between head, hand, forefinger, and thumb.

Figure 15 - Nuances in Hand/Forefinger/Thumb substitutions and Head/Hand-Forefinger-Thumb substitutions.

Consider the text in Figure 15. Each of a variety of movements performed with the head or the hand has as referents various signifieds (left column). The thumb and/or head, in a backward movement over the shoulder, refer to the recent past, accompany an unfinished enumeration, point to someone or something absent, or signify failure and one form of challenge (right column). The raised head and/or forefinger (center) accompany verbal expressions of increase. However, substituting non-superposable elements one for another (hand-thumb-forefinger) introduces nuances of meaning. For example, in the expression of opposition, the hand is reserved for objection, and the forefinger for correction. In the expression of ‘one,’ the forefinger is reserved for uniqueness, the thumb for priority. In the gesture for stopping, the thumb in place of the hand requests a pause. Finally, in depicting the past, the hand refers to the distant past, the thumb to the recent past.

Other cases of substitution arise more from the context. The hand, forefinger, thumb, and head designate, but one might use one or another of these body elements depending on the situation or the intention. The forefinger, pointed and slender, precise and threatening, often designates someone or something in order to command or accuse. The hand, which constitutes a surface rather than a line, presents and offers. Its concrete designations are polite and not imperative, although an ostentatious indication—Now look at that!—may be denigrating.

Being more economical for the speaker, quick designation with the head in fact appears impolite, except of course if the hands are occupied. Moreover, provocative designation and challenge are expressed by a ‘head slam’ (evoking a shock). The thumb easily designates to the side or backward. In other directions, probably because of the symbolic signification of rejection or offhandedness attached to the thumb, its use is cavalier and offhanded, even rude and authoritative: it is the strongest digit.

We noted that the use of the hand or head involves nuances of style. However, here is an interesting example of permutation between them for an upward movement, the sign of augmentative exclamation (depicting accumulation). The hand is raised in profile at head level: All of these reforms, * and God knows there have been many.—With trains going by * until one o’clock in the morning!—It’s * excessively expensive now! Why does one often prefer only to lift the head backward? Out of discretion? From fatigue? No, it seems to be to better cry out, since the majority of the corresponding utterances are veritable exclamations: * Oh là, it’s crowded!—But in a north-easter, * ouh là là!—The temperatures will be rising, and Saturday, * they’ll still be rising!—* Ah, big question!

Plane

The best example of nuances in the equivalence between planes deals with the notion of cutting (Figure 16). The edge of the hand cuts space either (a) vertically or (b) horizontally, and may do so in different ways on either plane. Each of these ways specifies a nuance:

(a) Vertically. In a sagittal plane, perpendicular to the body, the gesture evokes a physical cutting or the dichotomy between two points of view, while in the frontal plane, parallel to the body, it corresponds more to the notion of rupture. Indeed, the sagittal plane which divides space into left and right halves adds the notion of opposition to that of cutting (the very strong symbolic opposition between left and right is found in several cultures in the religious, social, and political arenas), while the frontal plane, an obstacle in front of the speaker, depicts stopping or a barrier: the border of Russia, the ‘wall’ between two people of different education, or the breaking off of a contract.

(b) Horizontally. With the palm down, the cut, imbued with the other significations attached to transverse movements, is complete and definitive and is synonymous with suppression: beheading or literally executing someone, or clear-cut and even slashing opinions. With the palm up, the edge of the hand becomes the blade of a scythe and cuts at the base; the gesture may evoke chopping down trees or razing the town of Praga, or, figuratively, the sapping of an organization by an administrative decision, property developers cut down by a mayoral decision, or a surgery patient taken by the ‘Grim Reaper.’

Figure 16 - Cutting: Variants in different planes.

Axis

The phenomenon of axial variants is particularly evident for temporal localization. The back-to-front axis is replaced by the axis from left to right, the direction in which we write, when the speaker wishes to oppose the temporal notions of anteriority and posteriority in a single sentence (see Figure 9). The contrast is rendered by a seesaw movement of the hand or head, to the left for anteriority, to the right for posteriority (Chapter 4, Localization . . . : posteriority, anteriority).

In a more striking transfer, these two orthogonal, horizontal axes may replace the vertical axis, as if the latter fell forward and then rotated clockwise. The notion of improvement, generally situated above, moves forward, i.e., toward the front or right. For a comparative scale, distinguishing for example positive from negative numbers, or opposing top-of-the-line from bottom-of-the-line products, the transverse axis is preferred. Rather than being localized under the table or behind the speaker, lower levels are placed, much more practically, to the left. In a similar way a politician situates to the right the vote obtained by the communist party, slightly over 16%, and the director of Talbot, interviewed on television, places his top-of-the֊line cars also on the right.

The equivalence between these different axes allows the creation of diagonals which are also equivalent (Figure 17: 1-3). The N-Ε diagonal, with north in front and east to the right, corresponds to moving forward. While the horizontal oblique *¹ depicts progression (progressive unfolding, posteriority, future), a frontal oblique *² represents the rising diagonal of a diagram: And who will then *² move up the salary scale—When *² this number increases, and a sagittal oblique *³ depicts a surge or new growth: *³ There was the rise of Hitler—Your manager is responsible *³ for your career profile (the gesture depicts both forward advancement and upward promotion). Finally, the resultant of the three directions * seems to be reserved for hope: * Directions and hope for the future, announces a party leader on television, raising his hand along the N-Ε diagonal. At the same time, this spatial symbolism was depicted on an electoral poster ad by a perspective line rising to the right: Jacques Chirac, hope for the French. The gestural and graphic depictions come together in a single visual symbol, as we have noted for the circle (Chapter 3, Visual symbolism of the circle).

Figure 17 - A synthesis of three axes.

It would be interesting to consider the notion of progression in cultures where one writes from right to left, in contrast with our culture. It may be that writing is not the determining factor since for most of these cultures, the right side is the pure, good, or strong side; it has a positive character. Moreover, countries in which a Semitic script is used share the scientific graphical representations (diagrams) of Western countries.

Repetition

The motivation of a great many repetitive gestures can be deduced from the single-movement variant. As a first example, consider the lateral head-shake. This well-known sign of negation, which substitutes for speech, also illustrates the notions of totality and approximation in some utterances:

(1) Negation-Refusal. The head is turned to the side to refuse food, or in order not to see or smell something unpleasant. It is a sign of disgusted refusal. The lateral head-shake of denial thus appears as a turning away to one side, then to the other, in a sign of refusal.

(2) Totality. While the notion is signified without speaking by a transverse movement of the palm facing down, it can also be signified by a transverse movement of the chin *, as though the speaker were sweeping his gaze across the horizon: * All of the surveys show it.—This morning the strike * was total.—This process is false, * completely rigged. Another variant, the lateral head-shake *, appears as a transverse movement, repeated for insistence. The examples below show that the character of totality is stronger in repeated gestures on both the gestural and verbal levels. The expression of totality is phono-gesturally more marked: It was * absolutely imperative.—. . . listening to the reviews * which are totally contradictory.—* Always, always disinterested.

(3) Approximation-Interval. The lateral head-shake can also be a concrete representation of the repeated passage between the two limits of an interval, thus defining their separation, the available margin: * It’s a ten-to fifteen-year affair.—Thirty billion * roughly, if the dollar stays as high. In contrast, the single movement to one side, then to the other, evokes a figurative interval: * But between two downpours, it was hard to tell that Borg was still Borg.—* Between 36 and 41 dollars a barrel.

Thus, the comparison of various signifieds attached to the lateral head-shake shows that this gesture covers not one, but three motivations. The plural motivation of a polysemous gesture is discovered through its singlemovement variants (Figure 18): (1) as a sign of refusal, it is to be interpreted as an alternately repeated turning away; (2) associated with the idea of totality, it is to be considered as the repetition of a transverse movement which scans the horizon; (3) finally, by laterally shaking one’s head, one indicates the interval between two given limits or the approximate margin.

Figure 18 - Polysemy of lateral head-shake.

The lateral back-and-forth tipping of the head is another example of a polysemous gesture (Figure 19). It indicates either hesitation or exaggeration. The comparison of signifiers and signifieds shows once again the correspondence between a repeated movement and a single movement.

Figure 19 - Polysemy of lateral head-tip.

(1) Hesitation—Alternative. Tipping the head to one side then to the other illustrates an alternative between two contradictory elements: ‘Yes or no.’ The repetition of the movement expresses a lack of decision, a psychological wavering, often supplemented by a facial expression of doubt. Cocking the head to one side to see ‘from a certain angle’ expresses a point of view, often restrictive: That’s one way of looking at it. The gesture can be further specified by a facial expression of doubt: Yeah, I guess so. In short, the head waver which consists in tilting the head to one side and then to the other seems to say: From this point of view, yes; but from another angle, no.

(2) Irritation—Reaction to exaggeration. An abrupt sideways lowering of the head is a way of insisting on something negative. More precisely, and more commonly, it marks disagreement when someone else exaggerates (Chapter 3, Abrupt lateral lowering). The repeated movement from side to side cannot be as abrupt. It loses some of the strength of disagreement. However, exaggeration is characterized by repetition which finally irritates: It’s starting to get tiresome! Too much is too much: the meaning is given by a (slow) back-and-forth tipping of the head, with either a smirk or a sigh of fatigue. Both a concierge complaining of the scorching heat and an assemblyman pointing out the excessive comments of a minister use this gesture. And both without a word. Thus, a single, abrupt movement insists more on disagreement, the desire to stop someone’s exaggeration, while the alternating movement, by its repetition, better renders the irritation that exaggeration begins to provoke.

Motivation revealed by the variants within a given sign

UNION OR ENCLOSURE.To depict union or solidarity, the cupped hands come together face-to-face to join in a single whole. Enclosure may be expressed by the same gesture, but its second variant (bell jar), which consists in symmetrically drawing a hemisphere, indicates that the motivation is different: the curved hands with spread fingers are brought together to form a sphere.

VENGEFUL REPARTEE OR SPEED-FORCE-POWER.Jabbing a fist outward from the stomach, with the forearm parallel to the body, is an ambiguous gesture (Illustration 17). It signifies both (1) vengeful repartee, Good shot, Got ’em there, for which the fist jab is often punctuated by an onomatopoeia (Et vlan, et toc, et tac, et paf), or (2) maximum speed or force. The real-life examples show that this power can apply to any device or vehicle: phonograph, heater, fan, bus, sailboat, car. Finally, applied to anything, this notion of maximum becomes the superlative, since the same gesture accompanies descriptions of harsh light, sharp cold, or a great commissioner: We made record time * by forcing it.—* My car really hauls.—It’s * ( = really very) cold!—It was really going *^r, the ventilation.—Now him, he’s a, ** he’s a great commissioner.

While in both cases there is the idea of force due to the fist, the gesture does not cover the same motivation. To signify a blow landed on an adversary, with a gesture depicting sexual aggressiveness (Chapter 4, Cluster of signifieds) or even a punch in the stomach, the movement is generally single. In the second case, the gesture may be repeated (*^r) and suggests the movement of a piston or the power of propulsion. More abstractly, it can be symmetric (**) to symbolize maximum force.

Thus when a gesture refers to two different signifieds, the motivation of each signifier can be deduced from the variant presented by one of them. In other words, the different motivations of a polysemous gesture can be deduced from its variants.

The variants of negation

The numerous expressions of negation (Figure 20: 1–10) provide a complete view of the study of motivation through variants, since the comparison of variants uncovers a network of physico-semic components whose points of intersection seem to determine the nuances. Negation is signified in ten ways: by a lateral shaking of the head, the hand, or the forefinger; by a transverse movement of the hand (in a horizontal or frontal plane), the forefinger, or the head; or by raising the palm outward. The latter manifestation of opposition may be expressed in a different way by raising the forefinger in a sign of objection, or by pulling back the head with the neck stiff. Thus, the physical features which may be combined are: three vehicles (the head, the hand or its substitute, the forefinger), a particular plane, and two types of movement (transverse movement or shaking).

Figure 20 - Appropriateness of signifier for signified in (physico-semantic) nuances of negation.

An opposing, objecting nature (‘There’s not only’; ‘But yes it is’) is depicted by a movement of backing up or opposition against the outside performed with

(1) the head: * But yes, he was working.

(2) the hand: Oh, * absolutely not.—It must be highly representative, * or else it isn’t worth it.

(3) the forefinger, which substitutes for the hand when the objection is made in order to specify, i.e., to rectify: Anne Golin, * Golon excuse me.—Well goodbye. We’ll see each other again in a month, * no, five weeks.

The variants with a categorical, absolute, definitive character (none, never, no more, nothing) all have a transverse movement

(4) of the head: A minister does not have unlimited resources, * under any regime or * in any government.—The method of violence * is never the right method.

(5) of the hand in a horizontal plane (Sy): No, * not at all; that doesn’t tempt me at all.—In that case * I won’t say anything else.—But when there are 50,000 cases of food poisoning, ** nobody talks about it.

(6) of the hand in a frontal plane (Sy): I never understood, * never, * never.—Excuse me, ** let’s say no more about it.

(7) of the forefinger in a frontal plane: * No, you’ll never get me.

The variants with the palm raised outward are distinguished by their selfdefensive character, especially when the protecting surface is broadened

(6) by a transverse movement (Sy): Excuse me, ** let’s say no more about it.—* We are not discussing competence; that’s not the topic.

(9) repeated in a frontal shaking (Sy): Here again, * I’m not taking sides because I don’t want to.—Oh no, ** especially not that.

Perhaps because their physical insistence is more visible, the shaken variants (of the head or forefinger) are, with the palm raised outward, the only ones that can substitute for speech (Figure 20: 8, 10)

(8) lateral head-shake: Is that yours? A young woman answers, *.

(10) lateral forefinger-shake: Taxi! calls a pedestrian. The driver who has finished his day answers * from behind the window. In the same silent manner, a concierge forbids a door-to-door salesman to enter the apartment building.

A note on the contribution of the substitute: The forefinger, substituting for the palm, is raised or shaken. To the opposition signified by the outward frontal plane, it adds the signifieds of precision and threat, attached respectively to the raised forefinger (in profile) or the shaken forefinger (diagonally). We obtain the following equations:

To summarize, in this modulation of signs the limit of substitution is often determined by the relevant physical characteristics of the vehicle. Ultimately, the equivalences between planes, between axes, or between vehicles can be seen as parallel cross-sections which constitute several more or less long series of homologous gestures. Each element of a homologous series is however clearly individualized. We enter a world full of nuance, in which one finds a very subtle correspondence between signifier and signified. Nonetheless, from the perfect appropriateness between the two facets of a gestural sign, one must not conclude a unique correspondence between a precise gesture and a notion.

Motivation and polysemy

Gestural polysemy is intercultural (Morris et al. 1979) and intracultural. Examples abound in the proposed dictionary (appendixes), but the question remains the same: How can we reconcile the fact that there are several significations for a given gesture with the notion of an analogical link between the gesture and its various significations? Two explanations stand out.

Single motivation: semantic shifts

In these cases, a unique link exists between the signifier and the signified, but the latter is subject to semantic shifts. For example, here are the signifieds attached with the palm raised outward (Appendix 2: Hand(s) A-3.2/1.2.2):

The palm pushes back (1), stops (2.1) or asks to stop (2.2), opposes (4). The opposition is sometimes only partial (3. Restriction) or implicit (5. Implied negative). Pushing the hands forward, a self-protecting reflex, has become a sign of self-defense (6). Perhaps by role reversal, the gesture also serves to reassure someone else (7). To the extent that it is intended to calm, or to contain, the gesture sketches a downward movement and hence is situated more on an oblique plane. It is possible that it also implies a negative form (‘Fear nothing’; ‘Don’t worry’) as in the following cases, in which the gesture seems to correspond to a thought that does not appear on the verbal level. For example, one may stop a speaker because one agrees with him. This agreement, expressed with the hands raised in front of oneself, may be a form of defensive surrender: one ‘gives in’ to the speaker’s reasoning (8.1). Self-protective motivation is negative and always present, even for apparently positive meanings. To the extent that it opposes an implied negation, the outward-raised palm acquiesces: ‘I won’t say no’ (8.1 Agreement), or judges something to be certain: ‘Without a doubt’ (8.2 Certainty), or perfect: ‘Nothing to complain about’ (Perfection 8.3).

In another example, we have seen that a movement of the hand, head, or thumb directed behind the speaker carries numerous significations depending on whether the gesture localizes concretely, abstractly, or temporally (Chapter 3, Directional symbolism: backward). Concretely, it designates those who follow, suggests backing up, strongly advises someone to get in line. Abstractly, it designates the individual who has trouble following, a line of reasoning for example, or someone who finds himself at the back, such as an unlucky runner; the gesture then becomes one of challenge and signifies the foreseeable failure of someone. It also designates the place left behind (departure) or the possible tacit continuation (unfinished enumeration). Moreover, since we do not have eyes at the back of our heads, what is behind us is not visible and thus depicts what is absent, unreal, or virtual (reference to). What about the temporal point of view? Each person has his past behind him, and the distant past is quite logically placed physically farther behind than the recent past.

Rather like an epidemic, which spreads as much by leaps as by direct contact, meaning is transmitted by transfers as well as through semantic shifts. The gesture symbolizes a notion—often reduced to a configuration, movement, or (inter)action—which applies just as well to oneself as to another, to a concrete object as to an abstract one, and within the world of abstracts, to one level as to another: intellectual or emotional, spatial or temporal, logical or moral. Another possibility: an act in a particular domain—such as an act of contrition or a military salute—becomes, when transferred into everyday life, an ironic representation. Finally, implied in a more or less roundabout way (implied negative or double negative), the principal meaning of a signified (simple negative) is completely transformed by the inversion: the palm raised outward signifies refusal, ‘No,’ or defensive agreement, ‘I won’t say no.’ The transfers that prove most fruitful are those from one person to another, those from a person to an object with the same quality, the passage from literal to figurative meaning, and the merging of the spatial and temporal planes. The most striking examples follow.

ROLE REVERSAL.The pairs of signifieds expressed by the same gesture are many. One stretches out one’s arms to welcome or to entreat, to take someone into one’s arms or to be taken into those of another. With heads cocked, kindness answers entreaty, tenderness answers a plea for tenderness. The fist striking the palm from below depicts successful revenge, deceit (screwing someone), or failure through deceit (being screwed). The sidearm gut punch depicts vengeful repartee delivered or received. The tightly clenched fist evokes both authority and the resistance to it. The gestures which correspond respectively to Que dalle!—Passer sous le nez—Pouvoir toujours courir (see Chapter 1) express either refusal or failure due to refusal.

SPACE-TIME.The notions of sequence, limit, path, transfer, measure, separation, or localization are spatial-temporal. What follows physically is subsequent in time; an extended line shows continuation in time; a literal or figurative spatial relationship becomes a transfer in time; an obstacle represents a deadline; a distance is the time allotted, etc. (Chapter 4, Time).

Plural motivation

Here multiple links join signifying features of the gesture to the signifieds. A given physical signifier contains several functional signifiers, each attached by an analogical link (or motivation) to the corresponding signified.

We have just seen how the lateral head-shake, a sign of negation or totality or approximation, covers three motivations, the motivation of each signified being uncovered through the single-movement variant (Figure 18).

The lateral tip of the head constitutes another case (Chapter 3, Examples of tipping the head). According to the examples, the head may be cocked for several reasons: to reproduce an oblique line; unconsciously, to bring the head closer to someone else’s shoulder (‘softening up’); to see an object ‘from a certain angle’ (personal, restrictive, possible, or unexpected point of view); to dodge a punch, study the best angle of attack and/or regarder par en dessous (lit. look at from below-concealment, distrust).

Here is another example of plural motivation taken from curved movements. A vertical circle indicates a circular shape which may be empty (hoop) or full (dial). It reproduces a circular movement, literally (a car flipping over) or figuratively (snowball effect). It can refer to a type of manipulation (turning a crank) or operation, literally or figuratively (moulin à paroles, lit. word mill = chatterbox). Finally, we have seen how it symbolizes mediation or transmission, animation and internal dynamics, repetition and time (Chapter 3, Symbolism of the circle in verbal communication).

But the best example is the transverse movement of the prone hand, which contains five motivations. It depicts: (1) the line of the horizon extending from one side to the other (‘Everywhere’) or a level (‘It’s full’); (2) an obstacle with respect to a pushing up (growth) from the ground, or a transverse barrier; (3) a continuous, direct line; (4) a cut or break; (5) a horizontal plane. Note that in the latter case, the movement is slower.

Combining the two principles: semantic shifts and plural motivation

Nothing precludes combining these two principles of polysemy (Figure 21). A gesture that includes five different motivations can refer to fifteen signifieds. It suffices that semantic shifts occur for one or more of the motivations. This is the case for the gesture above, whose five principal motivations we have just considered.

In the first case, the level, considered high or maximum, respectively evokes quantity (Every Saturday night, * there was a pack of James Deans) or totality (I will * confess everything—** There’s some everywhere). These may be physical levels or value judgments. The signifieds corresponding to the latter are the superlative (Claude taught me * an enormous amount because he’s * a real professional) and perfection (An * incredible talent—* Very good, it’s perfect). We thus already have four signifieds derived from a single motivation.

Figure 21 - Combination of two principles of polysemy: Plural motivation and semantic shifts.

The third case is interesting. The continuous and direct line represents the directness of someone or something, for example, directness on the moral level, i.e., the frankness of someone (* And I say this quite frankly). When a thing is involved, we shift from temporal consequence (Every time there’s rain, * it makes them come [mosquitos]) to the logical, necessary, obligatory consequence of some fact. From this determinism (* It’s mathematical, systematic), we shift to necessity itself or to the obligation to do something (* It’s indispensable) due to unavoidable, certain consequences (* It’s for sure). The gesture becomes a sign of certainty.

The fifth physical aspect of the gesture refers to five or six signifieds. In drawing a horizontal plane, the gesture evokes the surface itself (a table, a plateau, a map), a second surface covering the first (a crust, varnish, an oil stain), laying flat, literally (* Arrange your things neatly on your bed) and figuratively (I think we need to put ** things in a little order), putting—or holding—something on the same level (coral showing on the surface of the water, Cagliostro brought to the level of men, the rate of sexual crimes staying the same, stagnation). Finally, the same gesture evokes a planar movement: the hand slides over the surface (rapid sideward or forward movement) or sands it to make it smooth (slow movement).

Double motivation of a sign

The lateral head-shake is a single physical gesture which synthesizes three doubly motivated signs: those of agreement, perfection, and certainty (Figure 22). We shall see that the double motivation of each of these signs can be explained by its polysemy on two levels, that of the signified (semantic shift) and that of the signifier (plural motivation). The double motivation is the product of the two principles of polysemy indicated above.

(1) The lateral head-shake often accompanies the expressions Tout à fait (entirely), Absolument (absolutely), or, again as a sign of agreement, implies a double negative ‘Yes’ (No problem.—I won’t say no). Note that this emblem of negation can signify its opposite, assent, when it illustrates a verbal cliché of agreement or implies a double negative (− x − = +). It can thus be seen as the repetition of a transverse movement (Totality: ‘Entirely’) and/or one of turning the head away (Refusal-Negation). It combines two motivations.

(2) The same is true when the gesture accompanies the notion of perfection, judgmental derivative of totality (repetition of a transverse movement), or implies a negative form, ‘Nothing wrong’ (repeated turning away of the head).

(3) Finally, as a sign of certainty, the lateral head-shake can also be seen either as the repetition of a transverse movement designating, by a straight line, direct succession or logical consequence, or else as a repeated turning away of the head, since it sometimes implies or accompanies the expression, ‘Without a doubt.’ This double motivation is confirmed by comparing variants. The lateral head-shake can in fact be considered as the repetition of a transverse movement since both the movement of the head and that of the prone hand are both signs of totality and perfection. Moreover, the shaking, like the palm raised outward, expresses agreement, perfection, and certainty through antithetical paraphrases, explicit or implied.

Figure 22 - Double motivation of lateral head-shake (<------->), as a signifier of agreement, perfection, and certainty.

Motivation and gestural redundance

Here we deal not with the combination of motivations leading to polysemy (qualitative aspect), but with combinations which strengthen a physical expression (quantitative aspect). A gestural expression may be reinforced in various ways.

(1) A gestural expression may combine different motivations. Thus the expression of admiration, Ben dis donc, super! (Illustration 15) consists in savoring, lips pressed together, corners turned down, the excellence, indicated by raising the prime digit, of a great feat hailed by a forward tip of the head. The various convergent motivations are added one to another on different levels of the body. The same holds for the triple expression of averageness (Illustration 18): the head tipped to the side seems to indicate a restrictive point of view, If you like, and the facial expression carries doubt: Mouais (hesitant ‘yes’) concerning that which the hand, by its alternating movement, declares to be ambiguous, average, or ultimately, mediocre: So-so.

Illustration 15. Super! Extra! From Calbris 1987: 85, by Zaü

(2) A gestural expression may have a single motivation with several very different manifestations which may be added together as in the case of refusal (see Chapter 7). Thus, highly marked repulsion involves the hand pushing away, the head turning away and the mouth suggesting vomiting by a grimace of disgust (Illustration 7). For offhand rejection, one has the choice between the hand which throws ‘over the shoulder,’ the shoulder which, by a quick shrug, throws off something unimportant as if it were a slight burden, and the mouth which, with a flatulent Ppp, depicts the release of gas, of ‘nothing.’ In reality, the subject strengthens the expression by associating two of its manifestations, the oral ‘fart’ with, for example, a shrug or a hand over the shoulder.

(3) A gestural expression may have a single motivation manifested simultaneously at different levels of the body, generally by the hand and the head (Chapter 6, Body segment). This redundant parallelism has the advantage of allowing the choice of a more or less discreet expression. As an example, consider the expression of powerlessness characterized by a rising and falling movement, or a rising movement stopped in suspension, which depicts futile physical effort at three possible levels of the body: the eyebrow is raised, but without being able to lift the eyelid; the shoulder is shrugged, preferably slowly as if with difficulty; the hand is raised, and let fall limply. The choice or combination of body segments performing the representative movement can be used to give gradation to the expression. There are other ways of doing this. For greater emphasis, the movement becomes broader, or the gesture becomes symmetric. Let us try to schematize the various possibilities. Let the parallel signifiers of powerlessness—raising (then dropping) the eyebrows, shoulders or hands—be represented respectively by 1,2, 3; let greater amplitude be represented by boldface; and let symmetry be represented by a superscript 2. We note that the expressive range is wide between the weakest, most discrete gesture: 1, and the most emphatic, which accumulates redundant parallelism, breadth of movement and gestural symmetry: l² + 2² + 3².

Thus there appear three possibilities for intensifying an expression: combining convergent motivations, combining different manifestations of a single motivation, and superposing redundant manifestations of a single motivation.

Motivation and gestural economy

While in the preceding discussion a signified was emphatically illustrated by several signifiers simultaneously, here we have the reverse: a single signifier evokes two signifieds. There are different cases, depending on whether the gesture is simple or complex.

Economical use of polysemous gestures

A polysemous gesture generally evokes one signified at a time, but its polysemy may be exploited to illustrate two signifiers within a single utterance, as the following example proves. The notion of restriction is signified either by the palm(s) (partially) raised outward, or by the index raised to shoulder level. Substituting the forefinger for the hand allows an economical synthesis:

Hand: * Even though there are still some great actors . . .—He came with a panoply of ** very rudimentary objects.

Forefinger: * At least at certain times.—* But if you’ll permit me, I hope the change . . .—* But there are some points I would like to come back to.—Amnesty for traffic tickets and suspended licenses, * on certain conditions however.—* But still, I’m the only one who does.—* Unless perhaps the problem is posed in terms of power.—* Except here, and this is a great day.—Telephone communications within cities will be re-established Sunday, * but any conversation detrimental to the security of the country will be cut off.—A sword eater, * even though he’s a bit young.

In comparing the examples, one finds that the hand implies selfprotection. More precisely, the speaker adds a restriction to his own statement in order to parry (with the hand) a possible attack from someone else. In contrast, additional notions enter the sentences in which restriction is indicated by the forefinger: asking for permission (if you’ll permit me), specifying (several points I’d like to go back to), uniqueness (the only one), suggestion (unless perhaps), or importance (but any conversation detrimental. . .). All of these notions are generally accompanied by the raised forefinger. The gesture’s polysemy thus allows it to illustrate, in each of the statements, restriction plus one other notion.

Economical use of complex gestures

A complex gesture is the synthesis of two simple gestures and simultaneously illustrates their signifieds (Sd) by combining the relevant features of their signifiers (Sr) into a single gestural unit. Such a gesture combines information gain with economy of time and movement.

Simple gestures are of several types depending on the nature and number of their components: (a) a single directional movement, (b) a particular configuration, or often (c) a set of distinctive traits, i.e., a type of movement (symmetric or not) to be performed with a given body part along a certain axis and in a certain plane, or in a specific direction. Thus, most complex gestures can be classified under two headings corresponding to two syntheses of the simple gestures, one being the combination of a movement and a configuration, the other, the combination of two movements.

MOVEMENT AND CONFIGURATION (Figure 23: 1-5).Associating a movement, one sign of A, with a configuration, one sign of B, appears to be the most straightforward and natural combination. The product of the signifiers corresponds to the sum of the signifieds: Sr A x Sr В → Sd A + Sd В. This principle of combination has already been pointed out:

(1) An opening movement of the fists becomes synonymous with forceful extroversion. Thus, while projecting his fists to the sides, an actor explains: * You’ve got to devote yourself totally every night; you can’t cheat.

(2) A movement of exchange outward and inward performed with the fist is synonymous with tough negotiation. A politician, alternately pushing out and drawing back his fist perpendicular to the stomach, comments: * Now we’re starting to negotiate heavy!

(3) An alternating up-down movement, with the thumb and forefinger joined at the tips *, combines the signification of equilibrium with that of subtlety to indicate a delicate balance. The speaker seems to be lightly moving the pans of a balance with his fingertips: We face catastrophe * whenever the delicate balance between production and consumption is upset.

(4) A transverse line drawn symmetrically, with the thumb and forefinger of each hand forming a circle, combines precision, indicated by the configuration of the fingers, with totality, rendered by the transverse movement, to illustrate total, perfect precision: While with Graham Greene, * it was absolutely clear.

(5) When the hand lifted far back to express the idea of distance or moving away has the palm exceptionally cupped in the prone position, a negative connotation is added: This is a change for us * because back there. . . !

COMBINATIONS OF MOVEMENTS (Figure 24: 1—5).The partial product of relevant features of two signifiers can suffice to evoke both significations. The speaker performs a movement of signifier A along the axis, in the plane, or in the direction of signifier В:

Figure 23 - Complex gestures: Movement and configuration.

Figure 24 - Complex gestures: Combination of movements.

where Sr X(x1, x2) represents signifier X with relevant signifying features x1 and x2.

(1) A diverging movement, the sign of opening, generally performed outward, is performed toward the ground, symbolic of the concrete and real, to express opening schools up to the real world.

(2) It’s a more and more totalizing approach, explains a poet. He gestures in conjunction with his utterance: he begins to draw parallel, sagittal, forward loops with his hands to represent the evolution of the process, while progressively moving them apart to illustrate the ‘totalizing’ nature of the approach.

(3) An actor expresses his view of the scenario by drawing two overlapping circles on a frontal plane with his palms: And all of that * is an absolutely perfect imbroglio. Entanglement is generally represented by the two hands turning one over the other in two interconnected circles in a sagittal plane. Here it is exceptionally represented in a frontal plane. Why? We note that this adds the idea of admiration in the face of perfection, which is generally evoked by a panoramic image or rainbow.

(4) Can you tell us what Molière * did during the thirteen years he toured around (Fr. tourner en) France? asks an instructor, drawing with his hand a sagittal circle repeated on itself. The act of ‘moving about within’ (e.g., a country), in French tourner à l’intérieur, is usually represented by a horizontal circle. A fixed duration (thirteen years) is generally indicated by a spatial separation, but the idea of evolution is rendered, in accordance with its etymology, by one or more sagittal loops. The confrontation of a horizontal circle with loops in a sagittal plane is resolved by repeating a circle on itself in a sagittal plane; this illustrates both the word tourner and the idea of evolution.

(5) The belittling of something is often illustrated by a forward sequence of vertical loops with the hand: une espèce de petite. . . , un truc de pacotille, une babiole, etc. Combining this gesture with the movement representing anteriority, the President drew loops inward: * It’s not the campaign that’s been going on these past few days which. . . . By the circular, repetitive, serial movement, the speaker minimizes the denigrating nature of the campaign against him, while the direction of motion points to the beginning of this campaign.

In the above examples, the synthesis of two signifiers is obtained by combining the relevant movement of one with the relevant axis (Ex. 1-2), plane (Ex. 3-4), or direction (Ex. 5) of the other:

(1) divergent movement of opening, downward (not outward),

(2) sequence of loops, transversely (not simply forward),

(3) interconnected circles, in a frontal plane (not sagittal),

(4) repeated circle, in a vertical plane (not horizontal),

(5) vertical loops with one hand, rolling backward (not forward).

OTHER COMPLEX GESTURES (Figure 25: 1-3).Here are examples of gestural synthesis which do not fit into the above headings.

(1) A journalist says that François Mitterrand and Valéry Giscard d’Estaing are debating in a closed circuit. His hands are cupped and face each other to form a sphere. This gestural representation is original and synthetic in that it illustrates both the dialog (facing hands) and the closed world (sphere). A circuit is generally depicted with a horizontal circle, as is enclosure. Total enclosure is depicted with a sphere, and controversy with the opposition of two elements. The gesture synthesizes all of these signifiers.

Figure 25 - Complex gestures: Other cases.

(2) A philosophy professor speaks to me of a thesis whose structure he finds very appealing. Slowly, he turns his fists one over the other, so that each circle links to the next. The reason is clear from his statement: * The dialectical chain of the thesis was very interesting. The gesture renders not only the chain, but the interplay of the dialectic (between contradictory elements). The conflict between thesis and antithesis is depicted by the fists. The dual and contradictory movement is resolved in a synthetic whole (circle). This slow-motion boxing with rounded movements evokes a very harmonious rhetorical bout.

(3) To illustrate at the same time both mixing (hands turning one over the other) and approximation (oscillatory rotation of the cupped, prone palm), a screen-writer and a philosopher perform the same synthesis, that is, an alternating oscillation of the two cupped palms, one behind the other, as though interconnected: (a) a screen writer speaks of the * sort of disarray in which men and women now find themselves, and (b) a philosopher notes: I don’t very much like * the term Judeo-Christian (implying: ‘this approximate assimilation’). These two examples show that a complex signifier can refer to different combinations (AB-1 or AB-2) of the two signifieds which it illustrates. The notions of mixing and approximation evoke (a) a kind of disorder or (b) a rough mixture. We thus have the following equation:

Sr(al, b2) → Sd A + Sd B → AB-1 or AB-2.

We find complex gestures in comic strips. For example, while the acceptance of powerlessness is expressed by completely dropping one’s arms, anger or irritation sometimes raise the arms to the horizontal: How do I know? Let’s find a telephone and call the insurance company! Calling on heaven as a witness can also involve lifting the powerless arms: But what can you do about it? Thus the conflict between a movement upward and one downward is resolved by holding the arms horizontally and separating them.

To summarize, in complex gestures the convergent motivations are combined. Two simple signifiers are joined in a hybrid, either by combining the configuration of one with the movement of the other, by combining the two (contrasting) movements, or else by performing the movement of one in the plane or with the direction of the other. In short, two relevant signifying features, one from each simple gesture, are joined.

Relationships between motivations

After uncovering the analogical link between the signifier and the signified through an examination of gestural variants, it is appropriate to study the various types of relationship that these analogical links may have within the gestural expression. Table 24 presents the various cases met with. I recall the distinction that certain polysemous gestures and complex gestures led us to make between the physical signifier and the functional signifier; a physical signifier (a gesture for example) may contain several functional signifiers (relevant signifying features of the gesture, each of which determines an analogical link). Let us first consider a polysemous gesture. Either it contains only one functional signifier which refers to n signifieds through semantic shifts (single motivation), or it contains several of them, each referring to a different signified (plural motivation). The combination of these two principles of polysemy, that is, semantic shifts superposed on several analogical links, clearly increases the polysemy of a gesture, as in the case discussed above of the transverse movement of the horizontal, prone hand. Moreover, the possibility of these combinations explains the phenomenon of double motivation of a sign, such as that of acquiescence by a lateral head-shake.

Let us see what happens for one of the functional signifiers in a polysemous gesture with several analogical links and several signifieds. One often finds that each signified contains a faint hint of the other signifieds, which give it nuances. It is as if a kind of osmosis occurs, imbuing each element lightly with the nature of the others. For example (Figure 26), the transverse movement of the horizontal, prone hand is a sign of a cut or break, a negation, a totality, or the end. The cut or break signified by this movement appears total and definitive. The negation appears categorical, definitive, clear-cut. The finished character of something, expressed by this gesture, becomes synonymous with arrêté (fixed), achevé (terminated), supprimé (deleted).

In general, a polysemous gesture becomes monosemous in context. However, it often happens that a speaker takes advantage of the polysemy in a particular situation. For example, to signify both restriction and at the same time singularity, permission, or a condition, he will raise the forefinger. In other similar situations, he would raise the hand to parry a foreseeable objection by adding a restriction. He might instead tip his head to the side to excuse himself for having to weaken the statements of his partner. By this synthesis, he allies precision and gestural economy. Another economical procedure is that of the complex gesture, which refers to two signifieds by combining the corresponding functional signifiers into a single physical signifier. Combination by hybridization is only one type of relationship between motivations.

Figure 26 - Osmosis between the functional signifiers of a polysemous gesture.

The lateral lowering of the head to insist on something negative is a special case from the point of view of motivation: two functional signifiers implied for a single signified. It has been interpreted as a compromise between the sagittal lowering typical of insistence, and the turning away of refusal (Figure 4). In the same way, a lateral lifting of the head corresponds to an exclamation of rejection, expressed by a turning away (refusal) upward (exclamation). The frontal arc may indeed be the resultant of a vertical movement and a movement to the side to refuse something negative. I believe this is corroborated by the gesture of an ascending arc in a frontal plane *, performed as an augmentative exclamation before a negative event (Ah, it was tragic, * oh my!), and by that of a descending arc * also performed to insist on something negative (You detest the city of Marseilles, * I know). The two movements were performed by the same person.

The phenomena of convergence and motivational redundance indicated above serve simply for emphasis. Gestural synthesis of the signifier—by hybridization, osmosis, compromise, or convergence between several motivations—allows an exact definition of the signified. The world of gestures is comparable to the highly nuanced world of color. Specifying and strengthening a gestural signified correspond by analogy to the nuance and intensity (i.e., the tone and value) of a color.

Table 24. Types of relationship between functional signifiers

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7. This subject was treated in Calbris 1987.