Skip to main content

Analyzing Cultures: Analyzing Cultures

Analyzing Cultures

Analyzing Cultures

Glossary

A
ABDUCTIONterm used by CHARLES PEIRCE to designate the form of reasoning whereby a new concept is inferred on the basis of an existing concrete, or already known, concept; abduction is essentially a “hunch” as to what something means or presupposes
ABSTRACT CONCEPTconcept that cannot be demonstrated or observed directly
ACTANTunit of narration (a hero, an opponent) that surfaces in all kinds of stories
ADDRESSEEreceiver of a message
ADDRESSERsender of a message
ADVERTISINGany type or form of public communication designed to indicate the availability or to promote the sale of specific commodities or services
AESTHESIAexperience of sensation; in art appreciation it refers to the fact that the senses and feelings are stimulated holistically by art works
AESTHETICSbranch of semiotics that studies the meaning and interpretation of art in general
ALLITERATIONrepetition of the initial consonant sounds or clusters of words
ALPHABETgraphic code whereby individual characters stand for individual sounds (or sound combinations)
ALPHABETIC WRITINGwriting system consisting of conventional symbols known as characters that can be used singly and in combination to make up the words of a language
ANALOGYstructural relation whereby a form replaces another that is similar in form, function, or use
ANIMISMphilosophical and religious view that objects possess a life force
ANNOTATIONpersonal meanings associated with a sign
ANTHROPOLOGYfield studying human cultures
ANTHROPOSEMIOSIShuman semiosis
ANTICLIMAXrhetorical technique by which ideas are sequenced in abruptly diminishing importance, generally for satirical effect
ANTITHESISrhetorical technique by which two words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are opposed in meaning in such a way as to give emphasis to contrasting ideas
ANTONYMYrelation by which different words, phrases, sentences, etc. stand in a discernible oppositeness of meaning to each other
APHASIApartial or total loss of speech due to a disorder in any one of the brain’s language centers
APOSTROPHErhetorical technique by which an actor turns from the audience, or a writer from h/er readers, to address a person who usually is absent or deceased, an inanimate object, or an abstract idea
ARCHEOLOGYfield studying the material remains of past human cultures, so as to reconstruct the cultures
ARCHETYPEterm coined by psychoanalyst Carl Jung to designate any unconscious image that manifests itself in dreams, myths, art forms, and performances across cultures
ARCHITECTEMEminimal unit of an architectural code (a column, a rood shape, etc.)
ARCHITECTUREart and science of designing and erecting buildings
ARGUMENTin Peircean theory, the interpretant of a legisign (symbol)
ARTdisciplined expressive activity that provides the people who produce it and the community that observes it with a range of experiences that might be aesthetic, emotional, intellectual, or a combination of these
ARTIFACTobject produced or shaped by human craft, especially a tool, a weapon, or an ornament, that is of archaeological or historical interest
ARTIFACTUAL TRANSMISSIONtransmission of messages through artifactual means such as books and letters
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCEbranch of computer science concerned with the development of machines having the ability to perform human mental functions
AUSTRALOPITHECUSgenus of Homo discovered at a number of sites in eastern and southern Africa, dating from more than 4 million years ago
AXIOMstatement universally accepted as true, and therefore accepted without proof
B
BALLETclassical dance form characterized by grace and precision of movement and elaborate formal technique
BASIC LEVEL CONCEPTconcept that has a typological (classificatory) function
BAUHAUS SCHOOLtwentieth-century school of architectural design which invented the skyscraper and high-rise apartment building form
BILATERAL KINSHIP SYSTEMkinship system which assigns membership to kin through both the maternal and paternal lines
BIOSEMIOSISsemiosis in all living things
BIOSEMIOTICSbranch of semiotics studying semiosis in all life forms
BIPEDALISMwalking upright on two feet
BIRTH AND REBIRTH MYTHmyth informing people about how life can be renewed or about the coming of an ideal society or savior
BRAND IMAGEcreation of a personality for a product through naming, packaging, and pricing
C
CEREBRAL DOMINANCEtheory that posits the left hemisphere of the brain as the dominant one in all the higher mental functions
CHANNELphysical means by which a signal or message is transmitted
CHARACTERperson portrayed in an artistic piece, such as a drama or novel
CINEMAvisual narrative art form that encompasses the utilization of verbal and nonverbal codes
CIVILIZATIONcomplex society, or group of societies, whose institutions are grounded in the signifying order of a mainstream culture, but which can encompass more than one culture
CLIMAXrhetorical technique by which ideas are sequenced in abruptly increasing importance, from the least to the most forcible
CLOSED TEXTtext with a singular or fairly limited range of meaning (e.g. a map)
CLOTHINGapparel to cover the body
CODEsystem in which signs are organized and which determines how they relate to each other
COEVOLUTIONsociobiological theory that genes and culture are evolving in tandem
COGNATIC KINSHIP SYSTEMkinship system which assigns social importance to the relatives of both sexes with little formal distinction between them
COGNITIVE COMPRESSION EFFECTterm used in this book to refer to the fact that TV presents personages, events, and information globally and instantly, leaving little time for reflection on the topics, implications, words, etc. contained in a TV message, thus leading to a state in which information is desired and understood mainly in a compressed form
COGNITIVE SCIENCEinterdisciplinary science studying human consciousness mainly with the techniques of artificial intelligence
COGNITIVE STYLEparticular way in which information and knowledge are processed
COGNIZING STATErudimentary state of knowing things through the senses
COMICSnarrative text put together by means of a series of drawings arranged in horizontal lines, strips, or rectangles called panels, and read from left to right
COMMEDIA DELL’ARTEimprovised comedic theater, with stock characters and recurring story-lines adapted to fit the preferences of specific audiences, that arose in sixteenth-century Italy and spread throughout Europe
COMMUNAL KNOWINGknowing that derives from living in a cultural setting
COMMUNICATIONproduction and exchange of messages and meanings
COMMUNICATION SCIENCEscience studying all the technical aspects of communication.
CONATIVE FUNCTIONeffect of a message on the addressee
CONCEITelaborate, often extravagant, metaphor or simile that makes an association between things that are normally perceived to be totally dissimilar
CONCEPTgeneral thought connection or pattern made by the human mind (within cultural contexts) through association, induction, deduction, and/or abduction
CONCEPTUAL METAPHORgeneralized metaphorical formula that defines a specific abstraction
CONCEPTUAL METONYMgeneralized metonymical formula that defines a specific abstraction
CONCRETE CONCEPTconcept that is demonstrable and observable in a direct way
CONDITIONED RESPONSEresponse that has been elicited by some experimental factor
CONDITIONINGprocess of causing someone to become accustomed to something
CONNOTATIONextended or secondary meaning of a sign
CONNOTATIVE SEQUENCEsequence of connotations suggested by a text
CONSCIOUSNESSawareness of one’s environment and one’s own existence, sensations, and thoughts
CONTACTphysical channel employed in communication and the psychological connections between addresser and addressee
CONTEXTenvironment (physical and social) in which signs are produced and messages generated
CONVENTIONAL SIGNsign that has no apparent connection to any perceivable feature of its referent
COSMOGONIC MYTHmyth explaining how the world came into being
CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIShypothesis formulated by linguist Eric Lenneberg which claims that there is a fixed period of time, from birth to around puberty, during which the brain organizes its division of labor, especially the localization of language to the language centers of the left hemisphere
CRO-MAGNONearly genus of Homo sapiens sapiens who lived in western and southern Europe during the last glacial age
CUISINEterm meant to emphasize the difference between the biological and cultural orders in human life in the area of eating; food pertains to the biological order, cuisine to the cultural order
CULTURAL MODELconstant juxtaposition of conceptual metaphors that leads to a complex abstract model of a concept
CULTURAL SEMIOTICSbranch of semiotics studying culture
CULTUREinterconnected system of daily living that is held together by the signifying order (signs, codes, texts)
CULTURE HERO MYTHmyth describing beings who discover a cultural artifact or technological process that radically changes the course of history
CUNEIFORM WRITINGwriting code consisting of wedge-shaped symbols used in ancient Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian writing
D
DANCEart of moving rhythmically, usually to music, using prescribed or improvised steps and gestures
DECODINGprocess of deciphering the message formed in terms of a specific code
DEDUCTIONreasoning and concept-formation which unfolds by the application of a general concept or line of reasoning to a specific occurrence
DEIXISprocess of locating beings, objects, and events in time, space, or relation to each other
DENOTATIONprimary, intensional meaning of a sign
DIACHRONYstudy of change in signs and codes over time
DICISIGNin Peircean theory, interpretant of a sinsign
DIMENSIONALITY PRINCIPLEterm utilized in this book to refer to the fact that all systems of knowledge and representation manifest a three-dimensional pattern of firstness, secondness, and thirdness
DISCOURSEverbal communication involving an addresser and an addressee
DISPLACEMENTability to conjure up the things to which signs refer even though these things might not be physically present for the senses to perceive
DISTANCEspace that people maintain between themselves during socially meaningful contact or interaction
DIVERSIFICATIONformation of languages from one source
DRAMAverbal performing art that involves actors on a stage or platform with the background support of setting and props
DRESSsystem of clothing (e.g. the dress code for weddings)
E
ECHOISMphonic imitation of sounds heard in the environment
ECONOMIC SPHEREsecondary sphere of culture that emerged to institutionalize and regulate the exchange of goods and services among the members of a collectivity
EDUCATIONAL SPHEREsecondary sphere of culture that emerged to institutionalize and regulate the transmission of culturally relevant knowledge and skills to subsequent generations
EMOTIVE CONNOTATIONconnotation that conveys personal perspective
EMOTIVE FUNCTIONaddresser’s emotional intent in communicating something
ENCODINGprocess of putting together a message in terms of a specific code
ENTROPYterm referring to anything that is unpredictable in a message or text
ENVIRONMENTALISMview of human mental functioning and development emphasizing the role of upbringing
ESCHATOLOGICAL MYTHmyth describing the end of the world or the coming of death into the world
ETHNICITYterm used to designate inclusion in a kinship unit or social collectivity on the basis of genetic and/or ancestral links
ETHNOGRAPHYcomparative study of cultures based on field work and observation within the cultures themselves
ETHOLOGYstudy of animals in their natural habitats
ETYMOLOGYstudy of the origin and evolution of signs
EUPHEMISMrhetorical technique by which a term or phrase that has coarse, sordid, or other unpleasant associations is replaced by one that is perceived to be more delicate or inoffensive
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGYcontemporary school of psychology that sees human behaviors and symbolic phenomena as reflexes of evolution and, thus, as residues of animal mechanisms
EVOLUTIONISMview that cultures result from evolutionary tendencies that are often capable of replacing physical aspects of evolution completely
EXCLAMATIONrhetorical technique by which a sudden outcry expressing strong emotion, such as fright, grief, or hatred, is interpolated into a text
EXTENSIONAL CONNOTATIONsemiosic process by which the intensional meaning of a sign is extended freely to add information, insight, perspective, coloration, etc. to it
F
FASHIONprevailing dress style
FEATUREsomething that is marked as being present or absent in the constitution of a sound, word, etc.
FEEDBACKinformation, signals, cues issuing from the receiver of a message as detected by the sender, thus allowing h/er to adjust the message to make it clearer, more meaningful, more effective
FETISHobject that is believed to have magical or spiritual powers, or which can cause sexual arousal
FETISHISMextreme devotion to objects and desires
FICTIONliterary work whose content is produced by the imagination and is not necessarily based on fact
FIRSTNESSin Peircean theory, the first level of meaning, derived from bodily and sensory processes
FOCAL COLORcolor category that is associated with a universal sequencing of colors
FOUNDATION MYTHmyth recounting the founding of cities
G
GENDERsexual identity established in cultural terms
GENERAL SEMIOTICSthe general study of signs and sign systems
GESTALTmental form which is extracted from patterns in sensory perception (e.g. circularity, movement, etc.)
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGYschool of psychology that studies the effects or influence of forms (Gestalten) on perceptual processes
GESTICULANTgesture unit accompanying speech
GESTICULATIONuse of gestures to accompany speech
GESTUREsemiosis and representation by means of the hand, the arms, and, to a lesser extent, the head
GRAMMARsystem of rules that characterize any code
GROUNDmeaning of a metaphor
GUSTEMEminimal unit of taste
H
HAPTICSstudy of touching patterns during social interaction
HEMISPHERICITYfact that the human brain has two complementary and cooperative hemispheres
HERMENEUTICSstudy and interpretation of texts
HIEROGLYPHIC WRITINGancient Egyptian system of writing, in which pictorial symbols were used to represent meaning or sounds or a combination of meaning and sound
HISTORY FABRICATION EFFECTterm used in this book to refer to the fact that TV both makes and documents historical events
HOLOPHRASEone-word utterance produced by infants
HOMO ERECTUSgenus of Homo that lived 700,000 to a million years ago and that expanded, at the close of h/er evolution, into the temperate parts of Asia
HOMO HABILISgenus of Homo that lived between 1.5 and 2 million years ago, possessing many traits that linked h/er both with the earlier australopithecines and with later members of the genus Homo
HOMO SAPIENSgenus of Homo that lived between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago, with a proportionately larger brain than any of h/er hominid ancestors
HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENSmodern humans
HOMONYMYverbal coincidence by which two or more words with distinct meanings are pronounced and/or spelled in the same way
HYPERBOLErhetorical exaggeration for effect
HYPOICONPeirce’s term for an icon that is shaped by cultural convention but which can nonetheless be figured out by those who are not members of the culture
HYPONYMYsemantic relation whereby one concept embraces another
I
ICONsign in which the signifier has a direct (nonarbitrary), simulative connection to its signified or referent
ICONICITYprocess of representing with iconic signs
IDEOGRAPHIC WRITINGtype of writing system in which a character, known as an ideograph, may bear some resemblance to its referent, but is also in part a symbolic signifier
IMAGE SCHEMAterm used by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson to refer to the recurring structures of, or in, our perceptual interactions, bodily experiences, and cognitive operations that portray locations, movements, shapes, etc. in the mind
INDETERMINACY PRINCIPLEHeisenberg’s notion that observations of natural physical phenomena were indeterminate because of the role played by the observer
INDEXsign in which the signifier has an existential connection to its signified or referent (i.e. the sign indicates that something “exists” somewhere in time and/or space)
INDEXICALITYprocess of representing with indexical signs
INDUCTIONreasoning and concept-formation which unfolds by the extraction of a general pattern from specific facts or instances
INFORMATIONany fact or datum that can be stored and retrieved by humans or machines
INFORMATION CONTENTamount of information in a message
INNATISMview of human mental functioning and development emphasizing the role of Nature
INTERCONNECTEDNESS PRINCIPLEview that all signs, texts, and codes in a culture are connected to each other in signifying ways
INTERDISCIPLINARITY PRINCIPLEpractice in semiotics of referring to the research and findings in other disciplines in order to carry out meaningful research on signifying orders
INTERPRETANTprocess of adapting a sign’s meaning to personal and social experiences
INTERPRETATIONprocess of deciphering what a sign or text means
INTERTEXTUALITYallusion within a text to some other text of which the interpreter would normally have knowledge
IRONYuse of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning; use of words in a humorous but often sarcastic way
K
KINESICSstudy of bodily semiosis
KINESTHEMEminimal unit of significant bodily movement
KINSHIP SPHEREprimary sphere of culture based on a genetic/ ancestral system of assigning membership
L
LANGUAGEverbal semiosis and representation
LANGUEterm used by Saussure to refer to the largely unconscious knowledge that speakers of a language share about what is appropriate in that language
LEGAL SPHEREsecondary sphere of culture that emerged to formalize the ways in which the members of a collectivity must relate to each other
LEGENDstory derived from folk history that differs from myth in that it tells about what has happened in the world since the period of its creation
LEGISIGNin Peircean theory, a representamen (signifier) that designates something by convention
LEXICAL FIELDset of lexical items (words) related to each other thematically (weather vocabulary, geometrical terms, etc.)
LINGUISTIC COMPETENCEterm used by Chomsky to designate the innate, often unconscious knowledge that allows people to produce and understand sentences, many of which they have never heard before
LINGUISTIC PERFORMANCEterm used by Chomsky to designate the use of a language in actual situations of speech
LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY HYPOTHESISclaim that language, cognition, and culture are interdependent; also known as the Whorfian hypothesis
LINGUISTICSfield studying language, including its uses in cultures
LITERACYlearned ability to read and write at some level of proficiency; i.e. acquired technical knowledge of how to decode written or printed signs and verbal texts
LITOTESrhetorical technique involving understatement for enhancing the effect of the ideas expressed
LOCALIZATION THEORYview that specific mental functions have precise locations in specific areas of the brain
LOGOGRAPHIC WRITINGhighly symbolic writing system in which a character, known as a logograph, resembles its referent only in small part
LOVEMAPmental image of what the ideal mate looks like
M
MACROCODEcharacterization of culture as an overarching code providing the signifying resources to know, think, learn, etc.
MACROSEMIOTICcharacterization of the type of semiotic analysis involved in showing how certain meanings are distributed throughout a signifying order
MACROSIGNIFIEDa minimal meaning structure (e.g. up-down, love is a sweetness, etc.) that is distributed across the signifying order, shaping the constitution of certain signifiers and texts that make up the various codes of that order
MAPtextual representation of a culturally significant territory or space drawn with a combination of iconic, indexical, and symbolic modes of representation
MATRILINEAL KINSHIP SYSTEMkinship system that assigns membership to kin through the female kinship line only
MEANINGconcept that anything in existence has a design or purpose beyond its mere occurrence
MECHANICAL TRANSMISSIONtransmission of messages through such means as radio, television, etc.
MEDIATEcharacterization of the influencing effect of signs on cognition
MEDIUMtechnical or physical means by which a message is transmitted
MEMEsociobiologist’s Richard Dawkins’ term for replicating patterns of information (tunes, ideas, clothing fashions, etc.)
MESSAGEmeaning of a text
METALINGUAL FUNCTIONcommunicative function by which the code being used is identified
METAPHORsignifying process by which two signifying domains (A, B) are connected (A is B)
METONYMYsignifying process by which an entity is used to refer to another that is related to it
MICROSEMIOTICcharacterization of the type of semiotic analysis involved in showing how specific meanings surface in specific signs and texts
MICROSIGNIFIEDa minimal meaning structure (e.g. good vs. evil, major vs. minor, etc.) projected onto a sign or text
MODELrepresentational form that has been made (or imagined) to stand for an object, event, feeling, etc. or for classes of objects, events, feelings, etc.
MODELING SYSTEMspecies-specific system that generates models
MODERNISMtechnique in architecture also known as the Bauhaus school
MORPHEMEsmallest meaning-bearing unit or form in a language
MORPHOLOGYformal structure of signifiers
MUSICart form based on the organized movement of sounds (sung or played on an instrument) according to rules of combination and contrast (harmony and melody)
MYTHstory of early cultures that aims to explain the origin of life or of the universe in terms of some metaphysical or deistic entity or entities
MYTH OF THE CULTURE HEROmyth describing the actions and characters of beings who are responsible for the discovery of a particular cultural artifact or technological process
MYTHOLOGIZING EFFECTterm used in this book to refer to the fact that TV imbues its characters with a mythological aura
MYTHOLOGYuse and/or evocation of mythic themes in contemporary behaviors and performances; study of myths
N
NAMEsign that identifies a person or place
NAMINGprocess by which names are assigned to persons, places, and things
NARRATIVEsomething told or written, such as an account, story, tale
NARRATIVE STRUCTUREuniversal patterns of plot, character, and setting in storytelling
NARRATIVITYinnate human capacity to produce and comprehend narratives
NARRATOLOGYbranch of semiotics that studies narrativity
NARRATORteller of the narrative
NARREMEminimal unit of narrative structure
NATIONterritory that some collectivity (tribe, race, society, etc.) has gained, inherited, or acquired, identifying it as its own
NATURAL SELECTIONtheory formulated by biologist Charles Darwin, according to which the young of a species that survive to produce the next generation tend to embody favorable natural variations (however slight the advantage may be), passing these variations on genetically
NATURAL SIGNsign that represents its referent by attempting to imitate in its make-up some perceivable property of the referent
NATURAL TRANSMISSIONtransmission of messages naturally (through the air channel, through chemical signals, etc.)
NEANDERTHALgenus of Homo, named after the Neander Valley in Germany where one of the earliest skulls was found, which occupied parts of Europe and the Middle East from 100,000 to about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, after which it disappears from the fossil record
NEOTENYprolonged juvenile stage of brain and skull development in relation to the time required to reach sexual maturity
NEUROLINGUISTICSbranch of linguistics studying the relation of language to neural processes
NEURONnerve cell that is the fundamental unit of the nervous system
NEUROSCIENCEfield studying how the brain processes information, generates mental processes, and underlies all aspects of behavior
NOISEanything that interferes with the reception of a message
NOSTRATICoriginal language of humanity
NOVELfictional prose narrative in which characters and situations are depicted within the framework of a plot
O
OBJECTwhat a sign refers to
OBJECTIFIABLEperception of a message as separate from the maker of the message
OBJECTIFICATIONprocess by which interconnected meanings are projected into the objects of a culture, thus creating the perception that they form an integrated system
OBJECTIVITYperception of knowledge as independent of knowledge making
OCULAREMEminimal unit of eye signaling or contact
ONOMASTICSstudy of names
ONOMATOPOEIAvocal iconicity
ONTOGENESISdevelopment of all semiosic abilities during childhood
OPEN TEXTtext with an (in theory) unlimited range of meanings (e.g. a poem)
OPPOSITIONprocess by which signs are differentiated through a minimal change in their form (signifier)
OTHELLO EFFECTlying in order to emphasize the truth
OXYMORONrhetorical technique by which two seemingly contradictory or incongruous words are combined
P
PALEONTOLOGYfield that studies and interprets fossils
PANTOMIMEdramatic representation by means of facial expressions and bodily movements rather than words
PARADIGMstructural relation between signs that keeps them distinct and therefore recognizable
PARADOXstatement that appears contradictory or inconsistent
PARALLEL KINSHIP SYSTEMkinship system by which both males and females trace their ancestry through their own sex
PARALLELISMrepetition of linguistic patterns
PARAMETERterm used by Chomsky to designate the kinds of constraints imposed by culture on the universal primciples of the speech faculty
PAROLEterm used by Saussure to designate the actual use of language in speech
PATRILINEAL KINSHIP SYSTEMkinship system which assigns membership to kin through the male kinship line only
PERCEPTunit of perception; stimulus that has been received and recognized; immediate unit of knowing derived from sensation or feeling
PERFORMANCErepresentation and communication of some text, framed in a special way and put on display for an audience
PERSONASelf that one presents in specific social situations
PERSONIFICATIONrhetorical technique whereby inanimate objects or abstract ideas are portrayed as living beings
PERSPECTIVEtechnique of representing three-dimensional objects and depth relationships on a two-dimensional surface
PHATIC FUNCTIONcommunicative function by which contact between addresser and addressee is established
PHILOLOGYfield that studies written texts to determine their meaning and relevance to a specific stage of a culture
PHONEMEminimal unit of sound in a language that allows its users to differentiate meanings
PHONETICSdescription and classification of sounds in language
PHONOLOGYstudy of sound systems in language
PHYLOGENESISevolution of all semiosic abilities in the human species
PHYSICALISMview that human cognition and culture are the result of genetic processes
PlCTOGRAPHIC WRITINGtype of writing system in which a character, known as a pictograph, bears pictorial resemblance to its referent
PlCTOREMEminimal unit of visual representation
PLOTplan of events or main story in a narrative or drama
POETIC FUNCTIONcommunicative function based on poetic language
POETRYverbal art based on the acoustic, rhythmic, and imagistic properties of words
POLITICAL SPHEREsecondary sphere of culture that emerged to formalize, through some governing system, the overall organization, goals, and aspirations of a society
POP ARTart form that utilizes themes and images taken from mass technological culture
POP CULTUREform of culture, characteristic of twentieth-century technological societies, that emphasizes the trivial and the routine in its art and in various other forms of representation
POSITIONINGplacing or targeting of a product for the right people
POSTMODERNISMcontemporary state of mind which believes that all knowledge is relative and human-made, and that there is no purpose to life beyond the immediate and the present
PRIMARY MODELING SYSTEMmodeling system based on the sensory properties of the body
PRIMARY SPHEREthe kinship and religious spheres of a culture that precede the advent of other spheres in tne history of the culture
PROPAGANDAany systematic dissemination of doctrines, views, etc. reflecting specific interests and ideologies (political, social, and so on)
PROPORTIONALITYthe meaning of words or forms on the basis of binary features or components which keep them distinct
PROTO-LANGUAGEmother language of a family of languages
PROXEMEminimal unit of space between persons; minimal unit of bodily orientation
PROXEMICSbranch of semiotics that studies the symbolic structure of the physical space maintained between people in social contexts
PSYCHOANALYSISfield studying unconscious mental processes
PSYCHOLINGUISTICSbranch of linguistics concerned with such topics as language acquisition by children, speech perception, aphasia, and others that involve psychological aspects of language
PSYCHOLOGYfield studying human thinking, behavior, experience, development, and learning
PUBLIC RELATIONSactivities and techniques used by organizations and individuals to establish favorable attitudes and responses to them on the part of the general public or of special groups
PUBLICITYcraft of disseminating any information that concerns a person, group, event, or product through some form of public media
Q
QUALISIGNin Peircean theory, the representamen (signifier) that refers to a quality
R
RACEterm designating a collectivity of people who share a greater degree of common genetic ancestry among themselves than they do with the members of other collectivities
RECEIVERperson to whom a message or text is directed
RECOGNIZING STATEcognitive state whereby a referent is recalled
REDUNDANCYthat which is predictable or conventional in a message or text, thus helping to counteract the potential interference effects of noise
REFERENTwhat is referred to (any object, being, idea, or event)
REFERENTIAL DOMAINspecific range of meanings to which signs refer
REFERENTIAL FUNCTIONcommunicative act in which there is a straightforward connection between the act and what it refers to, or communicative function by which a straightforward transmission is intended
REFLEX SYSTEMterm referring to the conversion of meanings into grammatical forms and categories
RELATIVISMview that an individual’s actions and behaviors are shaped primarily in relation to the culture in which s/he has been raised
RELATIVITY PRINCIPLEin documenting and explaining signifying orders, principle which asserts that the semiotician should keep in mind that signs, codes, and texts have structural effects on individuals
RELIGIOUS SPHEREprimary sphere of culture anchored in the universal belief of early peoples that there is a supernatural or deistic source to existence
REPRESENTAMENin Peircean theory, the physical part of a sign
REPRESENTATIONprocess by which referents are captured by signs or texts
RHEMEin Peircean theory, the interpretant of a qualisign (icon)
RHETORICbranch of philosophy and semiotics studying the various verbal techniques used in all kinds of discourses, from common conversation to poetry
RHETORICAL QUESTIONrhetorical technique whereby a question is asked not to gain information, but to assert more emphatically the obvious answer to what is asked
RITUALperformance, ceremony, set of actions or procedures to symbolize some event that bears great meaning
S
SCHOOL SYSTEMsystem of transmission of knowledge set up to guarantee the continuation of a signifying order
SCIENCEdiscipline based on the collection of facts and their explanation in some generalizable way
SECONDARY MODELING SYSTEMmodeling system based on verbal semiosis
SECONDARY SPHEREcultural sphere that emerges after the primary ones (kinship, religion)
SECONDNESSin Peircean theory, the second level of meaning, derived from verbal processes
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIALexperimental technique developed by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum which aims to assess the emotional connotations or annotations evoked by words
SEMANTICSstudy of meaning in language
SEMIOLOGYSaussure’s term for the study of signs, now restricted to the study of verbal signs
SEMIOSIScomprehension and production of signs
SEMIOTICSscience or doctrine that studies signs and their uses in representation
SENDERtransmitter of a message or text
SENSE RATIOMcLuhan’s term for the degree to which a physical sense is used in processing information
SENSORY COGNIZINGknowing an object through the senses
SENSORY KNOWINGinitial form of knowing something through the senses
SETTINGplace and conditions in which a narrative takes place
SEXclassification of an organism as female or male on the basis of its reproductive organs and functions
SEXUALITYbehavior associated with sex
SHELTERmaterial covering or structure that can be deployed or built to provide protection from weather changes and security against any predator, invader, or aggressor
SIGNsomething that stands for something or someone else in some capacity
SIGN LANGUAGElanguage code based on gestures and grammatical rules that share some common points with spoken language
SIGNALan emission or movement that naturally or conventionally triggers some reaction on the part of a receiver
SIGNIFICATIONprocess of generating meaning through the use of signs
SIGNIFICATION PRINCIPLEprinciple asserting that signifying orders are built on the same signifying properties (iconicity, indexicality, etc.) and that these manifest themselves in different ways according to culture, where they cohere into a specific system of signification
SIGNIFIEDthat part of a sign that is referred to
SIGNIFIERthat part of a sign that does the referring; the physical part of a sign
SIGNIFYING ORDERinterconnection of signs, codes, and texts that makes up a culture
SIMILErhetorical technique by which two ideas are compared explicitly with the word like or as
SINSIGNin Peircean theory, a representamen (signifier) that draws attention to, or singles out, a particular object in time-space
SOCIAL TEXTtext which underlies a signifying order and thus regulates communal sense-making
SOCIETYcollectivity of individuals who share a mainstream culture
SOCIOBIOLOGYstudy of biological evolution in terms of its codependency with social and cultural evolution in all species
SOCIOLINGUISTICSbranch of linguistics studying how language functions in society
SOUND SYMBOLISMprocess by which referents are represented through some form of vocal iconicity in speech
SOURCE DOMAINclass of vehicles that deliver a conceptual metaphor
SPEECHvocalized or articulated language
STRUCTURAL EFFECTeffect on perception and worldview produced by the specific meanings of signs, texts, and codes
STRUCTURALISMview that all human signifying systems, including culture, manifest regularity, systematicity, patterning, and predictability, keeping them differentiated
STRUCTUREany repeatable, systematic, patterned, or predictable aspect of signs, codes, texts
SUBJECTIVE KNOWINGknowing that is specific to an individual, rather than to a group
SUBORDINATE LEVELlevel on which a concept has a detailing function
SUBTEXTtext (message) hidden within a text
SUPERORDINATE LEVELlevel on which a concept has a highly general classificatory function
SYLLABARYwriting system based on characters representing syllables
SYLLABLEword or part of a word pronounced with a single, uninterrupted sounding of the voice (usually a vowel) and generally one or more sounds of lesser sonority (usually consonants)
SYMBOLsign that represents a referent through cultural convention
SYMBOLICITYprocess of representing with symbolic signs
SYMPTOMbodily sign that stands for some ailment, physical condition, disease
SYNAPSEjunction point of two neurons, across which a nerve impulse passes
SYNCHRONYstudy of signs, codes, texts as they exist at a specific point in time
SYNECDOCHEsignifying process by which a part stands for the whole, the whole for a part, the species for the genus, etc.
SYNESTHESIAjuxtaposition of signs so as to evoke different sense modalities simultaneously
SYNONYMYrelation by which the meanings of different signs overlap
SYNTAGMstructural relation that combines signs in code-specific ways
SYNTAXsyntagmatic structure in language
T
TACTEMEminimal unit of touch
TAGword, phrase, or clause added to a sentence to emphasize a point, to seek approval, to ascertain some reaction
TARGET DOMAINtopic of a conceptual metaphor
TECHNOLOGYsystem of objects made by humans
TENORsubject of a metaphor (topic)
TERRITORIALITYmechanism by which animals seek out territories for survival
TERTIARY MODELING SYSTEMmodeling system based on a signifying order
TEXTa message put together in terms of a specific code
THEATERreenactment of some event in nature, in life, in society in some carefully scripted way, involving actors and a spatial location, such as a raised stage, around which an audience can view and/or hear the performance
THEORETICAL SEMIOTICSstudy of signs and sign systems; also called general semiotics
THIRDNESSin Peircean theory, the third level of meaning derived from symbolic processes
TONEvocal or musical sound; pitch or modulation of the voice that expresses a particular meaning or feeling; manner of speaking or writing that shows a certain attitude on the part of the speaker or writer; quality or value of color; relative height of pitch with which a syllable or word is pronounced; any one of the full intervals of a diatonic scale
TOPICsubject of a metaphor (tenor)
TOPONYMname referring to a place
TRANSMISSIONphysical process of sending messages or texts to a receiver
TRIBEcollectivity of human beings sharing a signifying order, a territory, and a history grounded in the primary spheres
TROPEfigure of speech
TURING MACHINEcomputer program
TURING TESThypothetical test devised by mathematician Alan Turing to show that one could program a computer in such a way that it would be virtually impossible to discriminate between its answers and those contrived by a human being
U
UNCONSCIOUSin psychoanalytic theory, a hypothetical region of the mind containing wishes, memories, fears, feelings, and ideas that are prevented from expression in conscious awareness
UNILATERAL KINSHIP SYSTEMkinship system which assigns membership to kin through either the maternal or the paternal kinship line
UNIVERSAL GRAMMARChomsky’s notion that the brain has a set of innate principles that undergird the development of specific languages
UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLESview that certain features of language are universal, being part of a purported human “language organ”
V
VEHICLEpart of a metaphor to which a tenor is connected
VISEMEminimal unit of visual representation
W
WHORFIAN HYPOTHESISview elaborated by Benjamin Lee Whorf that the language one speaks shapes h/er worldview
WRITINGprocess of representing speech with characters
Z
ZOOSEMIOTICSbranch of semiotics studying semiosis in and across species
Next Chapter
Analyzing Cultures
PreviousNext
All rights reservedThis work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike 4.0 License. In short: you are free to share and make derivative works of the work under the conditions that you appropriately attribute it, you use the material only for non-commercial purposes, and that you distribute it only under a license compatible with this one.
Powered by Manifold Scholarship. Learn more at manifoldapp.org