Notes

CHAPTER 2

Respiration

1. E.J. Moran Campbell, The Respiratory Muscles and the Mechanics of Breathing. (London: Lloyd Luke, Ltd., 1958), p.xi.

2. Ibid., p.100.

3. Emilio Agostoni, “Action of the Respiratory Muscles,” Respiration, Vol. I of Sec. III, Handbook of Physiology (Washington, D.C.: American Physiological Society, 1964), p.378.

4. Campbell, loc. cit.

5. Edmund J. Myer, Vocal Reinforcement (Boston: Boston Music Co., 1913), P-37.

6. J. J. Pressman, “Physiology of the Vocal Cords in Phonation and Respiration,” Archives of Otolaryngology, Vol. 35 (1942), p.355.

7. Arnold Rose, The Singer and the Voice (London: Faber & Faber, 1962), p.92.

8. Campbell, p. 100. W. O. Fenn, “Introduction to Mechanics of Breathing,” Respiration, Sec. 111 of Handbook of Physiology (Washington, D.C.: American Physiology Society, 1964), pp.357-60; B. R. Fink, M. Basek, and V. Epanchin, “Respiratory Movements of the Vocal Folds,” Federation Proceedings Symposium, Vol. 15 (1965), 63-64.

9. Charles F. Lindsley, “The Psychophysical Determinants of Voice Quality,” Speech Monographs, Vol. 1 (1934), 79-116; Harriet R. Idol, “A Statistical Study of Respiration in Relation to Speech Characteristics,” in Studies in Experimental Phonetics, ed. Giles Wilkeson Gray, Louisiana State University Studies, No. 27 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1936), pp.79-98.

10. Giles Wilkeson Gray and Claude Merton Wise, The Bases of Speech (3rd ed.: New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), P-139.

11. Harlan Bloomer and Hide H. Shohara, “The Study of Respiratory Movements by Roentgen Kymography,” Speech Monographs, Vol. 8 (1941), 91-101.

12. H. A. Cates and J. V. Basmajian, Primary Anatomy (3rd ed.; Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Co., 1955), P-132.

13. Campbell, p.8.

14. O. L. Wade, “Movements of the Thoracic Cage and Diaphragm in Respiration,” Journal of Physiology, Vol. 124 (1954), 193-212.

CHAPTER 3

Phonation: The Larynx as a Biological-Biosocial Organ

1. V. E. Negus, The Mechanism of the Larynx (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co., 1931), p.230.

2. L. S. Judson and A. T. Weaver, Voice Science (New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, Inc., 1942), p.xv.

3. Negus, p. 5.

4. Johannes Sobotta, Atlas of Human Anatomy (3rd ed., Vols. 1 and 11; New York: G. E. Steichert & Co., 1933).

5. G. A. Piersol (ed.), Human Anatomy (New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1930), pp. 1,825-26, as cited in Joel J. Pressman, “Physiology of the Vocal Cords in Phonation and Respiration,” Archives of Otolaryngology, Vol. 35 (1942), 378.

6. Piersol, loc. cit.

7. R. Husson, “Excitabilite Recurrentielle et Entendues Masculines et Feminines Des Voix Adultes Cultivees, Semi Cultivees et Incultees,” Review of Laryngology, Otolaryngology, and Rhinology, suppl., Vol. 110 (1954), 260.

8. W. F. Floyd, V. E. Negus, and E. Neil, “Observations on the Mechanisms of Phonation,” Acta-Otolaryngologica, Vol. 48 (1944), 17-25; L. W. Siegel, “An Investigation of the Possible Correlation Between the Chronaxy of a Branch of the Accessory Nerve and Voice Classification (Master’s thesis, School of Music, Indiana University, 1963), p.69.

9. Chevalier Jackson, “Myasthenia Laryngis,” Archives of Otolaryngology (Chicago), 32 (1940), 434-63; H. A. Schatz, “The Art of Good Tone Production,” Laryngoscope, Vol. 48 (September 1938), 656.

10. Jackson, p.450.

11. Paul Moore and Hans Von Leden, “Dynamic Variations in the Vibratory Pattern of the Normal Larynx, Folia Phoniatrica, 10, 4 (1958), 205-38; William Vennard, Singing, the Mechanism and the Technic (Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1964), pp.39-40: Gunnar Fant, Acoustic Theory of Speech Production (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton & Co., 1961), p.266; Judson and Weaver, p.65.

12. Svend Smith, “Remarks on the Physiology of the Vibration of the Vocal Cords,” Folio Phoniatrica, Vol. 6 (1954), 166-70.

13. Ibid.

14. Figures on volumes from Judson and Weaver, p.95.

15. Albert Musehold, Allgemeine Akustik und Mechanik des Menschlichen Stimmorgans (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1913), p.113.

16. D. Ralph Appelman, “Study by Means of Planigraph Radiograph, and Spectrograph of Physiological Changes During Register Transition in the Vocal Tones (Ph.D. dissertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1953), pp.108, 113, 118.

17. Giuseppe Bellussi and Allesio Visendaz, “II Problema Dei Registri Vocali Alla Luce della Tecnica Roentgenstratigrafica," Archivo Italiano di Otologia Rinologia e Laringologia, March-April 1949, 130.

18. M. Nadoleczeny, Milliaud and R. Zimmerman, “Categories et Registres de la Voice,” Revue Francaise de Phoniatrie, January 1937, 21-31; Bellussi and Visendaz, p. 130-51.

19. Nadoleczeny and Zimmerman, p.24.

20. Manuel Garcia, Hints on Singing (New York: Schuberth & Co., 1894), p.7.

21. Richard Luchsinger and Arnold Godfrey, Voice, Speech, Language 1965 (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1965), p. 103.

22. Diday and Petrequin, “Memoires sur une Nouvelle Espece de Voix Chantee,” Gazette Medical Paris, 8 (1840), 305.

23. Gordon E. Peterson, “Production and Classification of Sounds,” in Claude Merton Wise, Applied Phonetics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1957), P-54.

24. Appelman, p. 189.

25. Edmund J. Meyer, Vocal Reinforcement, (Boston: Boston Music Co., 1913), P-37.

26. Joel J. Pressman, “Physiology of the Vocal Cords in Phonation and Respiration,” Archives of Otolaryngology, Vol. 35 (1942), 378; Aatto A. Sonnonin, “The Role of the External Laryngeal Muscles in Length Adjustment of the Vocal Cords in Singing,” Acta-Otolaryngology, Vol. 48 (1957), 16-25: Arnold Rose, The Singer and the Voice (London: Faber & Faber, 1961), p.114; Janwillem Van Den Berg, “Subglottic Pressure and the Vibration of the Vocal Folds,” Folio Phoniatrica, Vol.9 (1957),65-71.

27. Cornelius Reid, Bel Canto, Principles and Practices, (New York: Coleman Ross Co., 1950), pp.84-107.

28. Ibid., p.86.

29. Ibid., p.98.

30. Ibid.

CHAPTER 4

Laws That Govern the Vocal Sound

1. Charles A. Culver, Musical Acoustics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1956), p.18.

2. Sir James Jeans, Science and Music (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1961), p.36.

3. American Standard Acoustic Terminology (New York: American Standards Association, 1960), def. 3.21 and 13.7.

4. Ibid., def. 12.9.

5. Jbid., def. 13.7.

6. Ibid., def. 1.18.

7. Martin, Joos, Acoustic Phonetics, Monograph No. 23, Language suppl., 24, 2 (April-June 1948), p. 17.

8. Ibid., p. 18.

9. Gunnar Fant, Acoustic Theory of Speech Production (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton & Co., 1961).

10. American Standard Acoustical Terminology, (New York: Acoustical Society of America, 1942), p. 18.

11. Gordon E. Peterson, “Production and Classification of Sounds,” Applied Phonetics, ed. Claude M. Wise. (New York: Prentice Hall, 1957), P.52.

12. Hallowell Davis, Hearing and Deafness (New York: Rinehart Books, Inc., 1951), p.63.

13. Fant, p.265.

14. Kenneth L. Davis, Jr., “A Study of the Function of the Primary Resonating Areas and Their Relation to the Third Formant in the Singing Tone” (Mus.D. dissertation, School of Music, Indiana University, 1964).

15. L. S. Judson and A. T. Weaver, Voice Science (New York: Appleton-Century Croft Co., 1942), p.92.

16. Sir Richard Paget, Human Speech (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1930), pp.1-21: G. Oscar Russell, Speech and Voice (New York: Macmillan Co., 1931), pp.36-45.

17. Herman Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone (4th ed.; New York: Dover Publications, 1954), P.117.

18. Paget, loc. cit.

19. D. C. Miller, The Science of Musical Sounds (New York: Macmillan Co., 1922), p.232.

20. G. Oscar Russell, The Vowel (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1928), p.95.

21. H. K. Dunn, “The Calculations of Vowel Resonances and an Electrical Vocal Tract,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 22 (1951), 752.

22. Irving B. Crandall, “Dynamic Study of the Vowel Sounds,” Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 6 (January 1927), 110-116.

23. Fant, pp.113-14.

24. Dunn, loc. cit.

25. Fant, p. 15.

26. Ralph K. Potter, George A. Kopp, and Harriet Green, Visible Speech (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1947), p.8.

27. Pierre DeLattre, The Physiological Interpretation of Sound Spectrograms (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1951), pp.864-75.

28. Peterson, p.53.

CHAPTER 5

Sound as Sensation

1. L. S. Judson and A. T. Weaver, Voice Science (New York: Appleton-Century Croft Co., 1942) p.321.

2. Hallowell Davis, Hearing and Deafness (New York: Rinehart Books, Inc., 1951), p.29.

3. Stanley Smith Stevens and Hallowell Davis, Hearing (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963), p.451.

4. American Standards Acoustic Terminology (New York: American Standards Association, 1960), def. 13.17.

5. Davis, p.37.

6. Ibid., p.39.

7. Stevens and Davis, p.70.

8. W. R. Miles, “Accuracy of the Voice in Simple Pitch Singing,” Psychological Review Monographs, 16, 69 (1914), 13-66, as quoted in Stevens and Davis, loc. cit.

9. Stevens and Davis, p.70.

10. Stanley Smith Stevens and Fred Warhofsky, Sound and Hearing, a volume in the Life Science Library, p. 78. Reprinted by permission of Time-Life Books, © 1965 by Time, Inc.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. Stevens and Davis, p.25.

14. American Standard Acoustic Terminology, def. 1.58.

15. Stevens and Davis, loc. cit.

16. Ibid., p.451.

17. Peter B. Denes and Elliot N. Pinson, The Speech Chain (New York: The Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1964), p.33.

18. American Standard Acoustical Terminology, def. 12.3.

19. Stevens and Warhofsky, p.81.

20. Georg Von Bekesy, Experiments in Hearing (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960), pp.238-57.

21. Stevens and Warhofsky, p.82.

22. Harvey Fletcher and W. A. Munson, “Loudness: Its Definition, Measurement, and Calculation,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 5 (1933), 82-108; S. S. Stevens, “A Scale for the Measurement of the Psychological Magnitude: Loudness,” Psychological Review, Vol. 43, (1936), 405-16.

23. S. S. Stevens and F. Warhofsky, p.83.

24. Denes and Pinson, p.83.

25. Ibid., p.68.

26. Stevens and Davis, pp.268-79; Denes and Pinson, p.70.

27. Davis, p.60.

28. Von Bekesy, pp.439-531, patterns of vibration and wave motion within the cochlea.

29. Ibid., pp.635-710, electrophysiology of the cochlea.

30. Ibid., pp.535-39, frequency analysis within the cochlea as quoted in Denes and Pinson, p.112.

CHAPTER 6

Phonetics—The Linguistic Element of Interpretation

1. Webster’s New International Dictionary (2nd ed., unabr.; Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., Pub., 1960), p.1,884.

2. Claude M. Wise, Applied Phonetics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957), p.8.

3. American College Dictionary (New York: Random House, 1962); Cassell’s New French Dictionary (New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1951); Cassell’s New German Dictionary (New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1939); Heath’s Standard French and English Dictionary (Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1961); Daniel Jones, An English Pronouncing Dictionary (New York: E. P. Dutton Co., 1926); John S. Kenyon and Thomas A. Knott, A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English (2nd ed.; Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1953).

4. Claude Kantner and Robert West, Phonetics (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p.10.

5. Ibid., p.106.

6. Hans-Heinrich Wangler, Atlas Deutscher Sprachlaute (Berlin: Akadamic Verlag, 1961), p.26.

7. Wise, p.349.

CHAPTER 7

Stress—The Emotional Element of Interpretation

1. Allen Walker Read, “An Account of the Word ‘Semantics,’” Word, Vol. 4 (1948), 78-79.

2. Claude M. Wise, Applied Phonetics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1957), p.12.

3. Clifford H. Prator, Jr., Manual of English Pronunciation (New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1960), p. 16.

4. Ibid.

5. Margaret Schlauch, The Gift of Tongues (New York: Modern Ages Books, 1942), p.176.

CHAPTER 8

Styles and Dialects—The Social Element of Interpretation

1. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (5th ed., Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., Pub., 1960), p.283.

2. Claude Kantner and Robert West. Phonetics (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p.283.

3. G. W. Gray and C. M. Wise, The Bases of Speech (New York: Harper & Bros., 1959), p.262.

4. Kantner and West, p.290.

5. Lewis and Marguerite Herman, American Dialects (New York: Theater Arts Books, 1947), p.x.

6. Hans Kurath, A Word Geography of Eastern United States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949), pp.3-8.

7. Kantner and West, loc. cit.

CHAPTER 9

Vowel Migration—The Intellectual Element of
Interpretation

1. A. M. Lieberman, et al., “A Motor Theory of Speech Perception,” (Haskins Laboratory Report), Proceedings of Speech Communications Seminar (Stockholm: The Seminar, 1962), pp.6-7.

2. J. W. Black, “The Effect of the Consonant upon the Vowel,” Journal of the Acoustic Society of America, Vol. 1 (1938), 203-5; A. S. House and G. Fairbanks, “Influence of Consonantal Environment upon Secondary Acoustical Characteristics of Vowels,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 25 (1953), 110; I. J. Hirsh and E. G. Reynolds, “The Recognition of Synthetic and Natural Vowels,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 25 (1953), 832; and M. C. Schultz, “A Preliminary Investigation of the Acoustical Characteristics of Interphonemic Transitions” (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1955), p.109.

3. Daniel Jones, An Outline of English Phonetics (8th ed.; New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1956), p.6.

4. Black, loc. cit.

5. Claude Kantner and Robert West, Phonetics (New York: (Harper & Bros., 1960), p.60.

6. Lieberman, p.4.

7. See Pierre DeLattre, et al., “An Experimental Study of the Acoustic Determinants of Vowel Color: Observations on One-and Two-Formant Vowels Synthesized from Spectrographic Patterns,” (Haskins Laboratory Report), Word, Vol. 8 (December 1952), 195-210.

8. Fred W. Householder, Department of Linguistics, Indiana University.

9. Ibid.

10. E. L. Stevens, “The Acoustical Aspect of Speech Production,” Respiration, Vol. 1 of Sec. III, Handbook of Physiology, (Washington, D.C.: American Physiology Society, 1964), p.353.

11. Arnold Rose, The Singer and the Voice (London: Faber & Faber, Inc., 1962), p.214.